ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE
2
COURSE GUIDE
ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
School
EDUCATION
Programme
B.A (Educ) ENGLISH
Course Title
ENG 105: INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE II
Course Developer
Oyeniyi Okunoye
Unit Writer
Oyeniyi Okunoye
Programme Leader
Course Coordinator
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
Introduction
ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE II is a three credit course. It
will be available for student to take in B.A (Edu.) English programme.
The course will consist of twenty units and involves an introduction to poetry
and drama as literary forms, the material has been prepared to prepare student.
First year undergraduates generally need an intensive exposure to literary
forms and principles. The intention is to make the study of literature enjoyable
to them and help them lay a good foundation for literary study.
It is expected that you would have taken ENG 104 on which the course builds.
An exposure to literature at the senior secondary school level is necessary for
anyone interested in the course.
This course guide tells you in brief what the course is about the material
needed for it and how to make the best use of the materials. It guides you as to
the time you need to devote to each unit of the course so as to complete it.
What you will Learn in this Course
ENG 105 Introduction to literature 11 is intended to introduce you to the
aspect of literature that are not covered by ENG 104 Introduction to literature
1 a continuation of which it is.
A proper understanding of the forms of literature and the techniques
associated with them is always a good starting point in laying the foundation
for a career in literary studies.
Course Aims
The course aims is to acquaint you with the basic concepts and genres of
literature and thereby broaden your outlook on literature and its varieties. This
will be achieved by aiming to:
1. Introduce you to the basic forms of poetry and drama
- Outline the procedure for the practical criticism of drama and
poetry.
2. Demonstrate how a poem or drama creates meaning
through form and technique.
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
3. Analyse poems drawn from various traditions
4. Introduce you to indigenous African form of
literature.
Course Objectives
To achieve the aims of set out above, the course sets overall objectives. Each
unit also has specific objectives. The unit objectives are included at the
beginning of a unit. You stand to gain from reading them before working
through the unit and after.
The objectives of the course are set out below.
On successful completion of the course, you should be able to:
1. Analyse selected poems from a variety of traditions.
2. Recognize the elements of poetry and drama
3. Explain the elements of poetic technique.
4. Describe some features of African oral poetry.
5. Identify forms of drama
6. Analyse representative dramatic works
7. Discuss the principles of the practical criticism of poetry and
drama.
Working through this Course
To complete this course, you are required to read the study units, read all the
set books and do the personal assignments. Each unit has exercises for selfassessment.
You will be required to do some assignments at certain points in
the course for the purpose of assessment. The course should take you about 20
weeks to complete.
The components of the course are listed below and all that you also have to do
and how you should allocate your time.
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
Course Materials
Major components of the course are:
1. Course guide
2. Study units
3. Textbooks
4. Assignment file
5. Presentation schedule
Study Units
There are twenty study units in this course as follows:
Unit 1 Textual analysis of poetic works:
African poems 1
Unit 2 Textual analysis of poetic works:
African poems 11
Unit 3 Textual analysis of poetic works:
English poetry 1
Unit 4 Textual analysis of poetic works:
English poems 11
Unit 5 Textual analysis of poetic works:
African American poetry
Unit 6 Textual analysis of poetic works:
African oral poetry 1
Unit 7 Textual analysis of poetic works:
African oral poetry 11
Unit 8 Practical appreciation of poetry 1
Unit 9 Practical appreciation of poetry 11
Unit 10 Appreciating a poem
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
Unit 11 The nature of drama
Unit 12 Dramatic elements and devices
Unit 13 Introducing drama – Tragedy
Unit 14 Introducing drama – Comedy and Tragicomedy
Unit 15 Textual analysis of drama:
Medievel English drama – Everyman
Unit 16 Textual analysis of drama:
Shakespeare William – The tempest
Unit 17 Textual analysis of drama:
Ola Rotimi – The God’s are not to blame
Unit 18 Textual analysis of drama:
Niyi Osundare – The state visit
Unit 19 Textual analysis of drama:
LeRoi Jones - Dutchman
Unit 20 The practical criticism of drama
The first five units concentrate on the study of written poetry. The next five
focus on the study of African oral poetry. The next four emphasize the study
of the theories and principle of drama. The last six explore some drama texts.
Recommended texts
You need to have the texts that are to be studied in the course. The books are
divided into two; the general reference books and the reading list. The reading
list presents works to be studied as primary texts.
Reading list
1 Anonymous – Everyman in Medieval English literature JB Trapp.
Ed. London: Oxford University, 1973.
· Jones, LeRoi – Dutchman, London. Faber and Faber, 1967.
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
3 Osundare, Niyi – The state visit, Ibadan. Kraft books limited, 2002.
4 Rotimi, Ola – The God’s are not to blame, London.
Oxford University Press. 1975
5 Shakespeare, William – The Tempest.
General Reference Books
Egudu, R. N. The Study of Poetry. Ibadan: Oxford University.
Etherton, Michael. The Development of African Drama London: Hutchinson,
1982
Oasylva, A. O. Dramatic Literature: A Critical source book. Ibadan, Sam
Bookman, 1997
Assessment
There are two parts of the assessment of the course. There are tutor marked
assignments and the written examination.
You will sit for an examination at the end of the course.
Tutor Marked Assignments
You will have to submit a specified number of the TMA’s.
Final Examination and Grading
The final examination will be a test of three hours. All areas of the course will
be examined. Find time to read the unit all over before your examination.
Course Marking Scheme
Getting the most from this course;
The units play the role of the lecturer. You therefore need to take them
seriously. The exercises here also been designed to help you assess yourself
while reading. Do not neglect them.
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
All the units adopt the same format. The first item is the introduction, while
the next tells you what is in the unit. The objective comes next. The objectives
help you to know what you are to derive from each unit. The chance of you
passing this course will be enhance if you diligently read each unit and do the
assignments.
This is a course in literature. You are expected to interact with the texts on the
reading list. The poems you are to read are incorporated into the relevant units.
You only need to acquire the plays.
The following will help you in this course:
1 Make it your habit to read each poem you are to study at least three
times to properly enjoy and understand it.
1. Ensure that you read all the plays yourself. The units cannot replace your
own interaction with them. You are not likely to pass the course if you
decide or not to read the plays.
2. Review the objective for each unit after completing it to assess yourself
based on the objective
3. Do not wait until you get the assignment you have submitted to your tutor
before you move on to the next unit.
4. Prepare yourself for the final examination after completing the last unit.
Tutor and Tutorials
Information relating to the tutorials will be provided at the appropriate time.
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
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ENG 105: INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE II
COURSE DEVELOPMENT
Course Developer
Oyeniyi Okunoye
Unit Writer
Oyeniyi Okunoye
Programme Leader
Course Coordinator
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
UNIT 1
TEXTUAL ANALYSIS OF POETIC WORKS:
African Poems 1
Table of Contents
1.0
2.0
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Content
Dennis Brutus’ “Letter to Martha 17”
Background to the Poem
A Brief Summary of the Poem
Thematic Interest of “Letter to Martha 17”
Poetic Devices/Technique
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor Marked Assignment
Further Reading/References
1.0 Introduction
You will remember that in ENG 104: INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE
I we introduced the main forms of Literature. This course builds on what has
been done in ENG 104. It particularly concentrates on the two forms of
Literature that have not been fully discussed: Poetry and Drama. This unit
focuses on an African poem.
2.0 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
· Discuss the thematic concern in the poem analysed in the Unit,
· identify the literary devices adopted in the poem,
· Explain the effect of the identified devices in the poem.
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
3.1 Dennis Brutus “Letter to Martha 17”
Exercise I
Read the following poem carefully. Find out if the title of the poem and its
first line throw any light on what the poem is about.
“Letter to Martha 17”
In prison
the clouds assume importance
and the birds
With a small spice of sky
cut off by walls
of bleak hostility
and pressed upon by hostile authority
the mind turns upwards
when it can –
there can be no hope
of seeing the stars:
the arch and fluorescents
have blotted them out –
the complex aeronautics
of the birds
and their exuberant acrobatics
become matters of intrigued speculation
and wonderment
cliches about the freedom of the birds
and their absolute freedom from care
become meaningful
and the graceful unimpeded motion of the clouds
a kind of music, poetry, dance –
sends delicate rhythms tremoring through the flesh
and fantasies course easily through the mind
- where are they going
where will they dissolve
will they be seen by those at home
and whom will they delight.
- Dennis Brutus
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
3.2 Background to the Poem
The author of this poem is Dennis Brutus, a coloured South African.
(Note that a coloured person in South Africa is a person of mixed race). He
was opposed to the apartheid policy of the South African authorities and he
was detained because of this in 1963. This poem is one of those he wrote
while in prison to describe his experience. His prison poems were brought
together as Letters to Martha and sent to his sister-in-law named Martha.
This was a way Brutus beat the restriction to write publicly. The poem is in
every sense not a conventional letter. You will observe that it is so compact
and condensed. It is a good illustration of how poetry says so much in so few
words.
Exercise II
Try to read the poem the second time so that you can benefit from the
discussion that follows. This time around, pay attention to what the poet says
at every stage, considering the insight you now have into the background to
the poem.
3.3 A Brief Summary of the Poem
As you have earlier been told, this poem describes the experience of Dennis
Brutus in prison. You will observe that the poem concentrates on the agony
of the poet-persona. Note that we often hear a voice in a poem. It is
possible for it to be that of another person. But when the poet is also the one
talking in the poem, we refer to him as the poet-persona.
Now that you have read the poem again you will observe that Dennis Brutus
is disturbed because of his isolation. People generally do not cherish their
freedom until it is taken away by force. This adequately explains the
experience of Brutus. The prison experience made him to realise that we
often take our freedom for granted when we are not under any restriction. His
thought was particularly directed at the freedom of the birds and clouds. He
realised that while he was now confined against his wish, the clouds and
birds were not restrained. This contrast is the basis of the argument in the
poem.
The poet does not waste any time in telling us where he is. The first line “In
prison” adequately tells us the location of the experience. The two other lines
in the first stanza also introduce the reference to the birds and clouds. The
poet moves on to elaborate on the limitation and deprivation imposed on his
movement and liberty by the prison environment. He is conscious of the fact
that he is a victim of an unjust and heartless system – the Apartheid
administration. He cannot even see the sky. The fluorescent light – which is
artificial – is the only source of light for him. He imagines and admires the
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
movement of the birds in the sky. He again recalls that the common reference
to the liberty of the birds can only be meaningful to someone like him who
has lost his freedom. He focuses again on the clouds and expresses his
admiration of their movement. He is particularly bothered that the freedom
which nature makes available – as we see the birds and the clouds enjoy it –
is not available to him. Ironically, freedom has more value for him than the
birds and the clouds.
This naturally leads us to a discussion of the theme of the poem.
3.4 The Thematic Interest of “Letter to Martha 17”
You need to note that we have just considered an aspect of the poem, that is,
its subject matter. This is different from its theme. The subject matter only
tells us the topic that a particular poem engages. For instance, if we have
many poems that talk about imprisonment like the poem we are studying
does, we can conclude that they have the same subject matter. This however
does not indicate that they will make the same statement about imprisonment.
That is what will give each of them its peculiar identity. The theme is the
statement a poem makes about its subject matter. The theme is the central
argument or thesis that runs through the poem. You need to note that a poem
may have more than one theme.
In the case of “Letter to Martha 17”, the main concern of the poet is about the
value of freedom. The experience of imprisonment made the poet-persona to
realise the fact that he had taken his liberty and freedom for granted until he
lost the freedom of movement. He then admires the birds and clouds whose
freedom and liberty cannot be curtailed. His opinion about the contrast
between the freedom of the clouds and the birds suggests that the very act of
denying men their God-given right to freedom of movement in the name of
imprisonment is man-made. The evidence that such a deprivation is not
natural is seen in the different situation in which the clouds and the birds find
themselves. This is a subtle condemnation of imprisonment as man’s own
invention.
3.5 Poetic Devices/Technique
Every poet makes use of devices and techniques that make his work
succeed. These vary from poem to poem as you will soon see in the poems
we are going to study. What we do in each case is to draw attention to
devices and elements of technique that we find remarkable in each poem.
Let us identify relevant elements of technique in “Letter to Martha 17”.
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
(a) Diction
The choice of words in this poem is remarkable for its precision and
economy. You will, for instance, observe that “In prison”, which
comes as the first line of the opening stanza, indicates the setting of
the poem. The imprisoned poet would definitely want to say so much
in few words, especially because some limitation was placed in the
exercise of his rights. Such expressions as “bleak hostility” (line 6)
and “complex aeronautics” (line 14) are also effective in suggesting
the relationship of the poet with the state and the versatility of the
birds in the world of the poem.
(b) Rhetorical Questions
You will note the occurrence of rhetorical questions at the end of the
poem. The questions are placed at the appropriate place so as to help
intensify the amazement of the poet of the liberty of the birds. Even
though the questions are not meant to be answered, they emphasise
the futility of the freedom of the birds when compared with the
detention of the poet.
(c) Tone
Tone defines the attitude of the poet to his theme and subject matter.
The prevailing tone in the poem is one that nostalgically recalls the
loss suffered by the poet due to his imprisonment and subtly criticises
the system that authorised the denial of his freedom.
(d) Contrast
The poet succeeds in driving home his message by using contrast.
This comes out in the way he establishes a difference in his condition
and the condition of the birds and the clouds. The clouds are free and
unhindered while he is restricted. The impression he creates is that the
clouds and the birds are in the ideal world – the world of nature. This
also implies that he is condemning the system that imposes limitation
on his liberty and movement. He consequently suggests that
imprisonment is man-made and against the natural order of things.
Man then emerges as an inventor of evil, especially when
imprisonment is unjust and unnecessary.
4.0 Conclusion
One thing that should be noted about the poem is that there is a close link
between its concern (i.e. subject matter and theme) and its form (i.e.
technique). This is always the case in every successful literary work. The
technique and devices that the poet adopts often turn out to be dictated by
what he/she has to say.
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
5.0 Summary
Dennis Brutus’ “Letter to Martha 17” demonstrates that poetry may be the
product of a personal experience. But the poem succeeds in making a
statement that has timeless relevance. It portrays imprisonment as man-made
and undesirable.
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignments
a. Discuss the subject matter and thematic interest of Dennis Brutus’
“Letter to Martha 17”.
b. Carefully examine the technique of Dennis Brutus’ “Letter to Martha
17”, drawing attention to the effectiveness of any FIVE
elements of technique employed in the poem.
7.0 Further Reading/References
Brutus, Dennis. A Simple Lust: Collected Poems of South African Jail and
Exile, Including Letters to Martha. London: Heinemann, 1988.
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
UNIT 2
TEXTUAL ANALYSIS OF POETIC WORKS:
African Poems 1
Table of Contents
1.0
2.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
Background to the Poem
About the Poet
David Rubadiri’s “Stanley Meets Mutesa”
A Summary of the Poem
Thematic Concern
Technique
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor Marked Assignment
Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
In the previous unit, we examined Brutus’ poem in which personal
experience serves as the source of poetic exploration. The poem we shall
study in this unit is different in the sense that it draws on a shared experience
– the European engagement of Africa. But what it has in common with the
first poem is the adoption of lived experience for literary expression. You
will soon discover that this is a common feature of African writing. African
writers generally draw on the experiences of their people or their personal
experiences in their writing.
2.0 Objectives
This unit has objectives that are similar to those identified with Unit 1. At the
end of the unit, you should be able to
· discuss the thematic preoccupation of the poem
· relate the thematic interest of the poem to its technique
· clarify the relevance of the experience of the poet to the proper
reading of the poem.
3.1 Background to the Poem
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
You will need to appreciate the fact that African history has been a major
source of inspiration for African writers to understand the poem we are
discussing in this unit. The particular aspect of African history involved is the
colonial experience. But you must realise that the creative writer does not
merely reproduce history. History is most of the time seen by a writer as a
raw material in the sense that it allows the writer to use it for his own
purpose. What writers then do is to take such aspects of history as they find
interesting. They often end up giving history their own interpretation. You
may therefore assume that the writer does not pretend to be presenting an
objective version of history.
In the case of the poem we are studying in this unit, what is particularly
interesting is the fact that it is purely a creative reproduction of history. The
poem is based on the historic meeting of a prominent king in East Africa,
King Mutesa of the Buganda with Henry Stanley, a European explorer, in the
nineteenth century. The only aspect of the poem which is taken from history
is the meeting of the two people. All other details must be seen as a product
of the imagination of the poet. If you have read “Journey of the Magi”, a
poem written by the English poet known as Thomas Stearns Eliot (better
known as T.S. Eliot), what will immediately strike you is the fact that they
are similar. The writing of this poem seems to have been influenced by
Eliot’s poem. This is evident in the first stanza of the poem which seems to
echo the first stanza of “Journey of the Magi”.
You will also need to note that this poem is a narrative like Eliot’s. It is also
narrated by a persona. The only difference between them is that the persona
in David Rubadiri is merely an observer and not a member of the expedition
of Stanley. The exact opposite is the case in Eliot’s poem where the narrator
is presented as a participant-observer.
Exercise I
What does David Rubadiri’s “Stanley Meets Mutesa” have in common with
T.S. Elliot’s “Journey of the Magi”?
3.2 About the Poet
Now that you have gained some insight into the background of the poem, it
may be necessary for you to also note some relevant information about David
Rubadiri who wrote it. David Rubadiri is a leading Malawian poet. He is also
a first-generation Malawian poet. He once served as an ambassador of
Malawi.
3.3 David Rubadiri’s “Stanley Meets Mutesa”
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
Now endeavour to read the poem. Bear all that you have been told in mind. It
is necessary for you to read the poem at least twice. The first time you go
through it, read aloud. Then read it again, paying attention to the significance
of everything you read for a proper understanding of the poem.
Stanley Meets Mutesa
Such a time of it they had;
The heat of the day
The chill of the night
And the mosquitoes that followed.
Such was the time and
They were bound for a kingdom.
The thin weary line of carriers
With tattered dirty rags to cover their buttocks
The battered bulky chests
That kept on falling off their shaven heads.
Their tempers high and hot
The sun fierce and scorching
With it rose their spirits
With its fall their hopes
As each day sweated their bodies dry and
Flies clung in clumps on their sweat-scented backs
Such was the march
And the hot season just breaking.
Each day a wearing pony dropped
Left for the vultures on the plains;
Each afternoon a human skeleton collapsed,
Left for the Masai on the plains;
But the march trudged on
Its khaki leader in front
He the spirit that inspired
He the light of hope.
Then came the afternoon of a hungry march,
A hot and hungry march it was;
The Nile and the Nyanza
Lay like twins
Azure across the green countryside.
The march leapt on chanting
Like young gazelles to a water-hole
Hearts beat faster
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
Loads felt lighter
As the cool water lapt their sore soft legs
No more the dead of hungry hyenas
But only tales of valour when
At Mutesa’s court fires are lit.
No more the burning heat of the day
But song, laughter and dance.
The village looks on behind banana groves,
Children peer behind reed fences.
Such was the welcome
No singing women to chant a welcome
Or drums to greet the white ambassador;
Only a few silent nods from aged faces
And one rumbling drum roll
To summon Mutesa’s court to parley
For the country was not sure.
The gate of reeds is flung open,
There is silence
But only a moment’s silence –
The tall black king steps forward,
He towers over the thin bearded white man
Then grabbing his lean white hand
Manages to whisper
“Mtu Mwenpe Karibu”
White man you are welcome.
The gate of polished reed closes behind them
And the West is let in.
- David Rubadiri
Now that you have read the poem, you can look closely at the poem to
discover its meaning and how its parts relate.
3.4 A Summary of the Poem
You will remember that we had earlier noted that the poem is an imaginative
recreation of the historic encounter between Mutesa, an influential king in
East Africa and Henry Stanley in the nineteenth century. The poet, in
recreating the experience, imagines the journey leading to this encounter. The
poem can be divided into three parts, each coinciding with a phase in the
journey. The first part (lines 1-26) records the difficult journey of Henry
Stanley’s expedition through the country. The second part (lines 27-41) tells
us about the positive change of attitude that the expedition experienced on
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
sighting the Nyanza. The last part describes the actual entry of the expedition
to the village.
The poem is set in tropical Africa. This is indicated by the weather and
vegetation suggested in the first lines. The expedition team first travelled
through the country. Henry Stanley is presented as leading the expedition. In
his company were black people who carried his loads. These “carriers” had
“tattered dirty rags to cover their bultocks” (line 8). Their heads were also
shaven. The journey was particularly tedious due to the harsh weather. The
horses on which they travelled died only to be consumed by the vultures.
Some members of the team were also lost. These were not enough to
discourage them. Henry Stanley’s determination to get to the Buganda
kingdom served as the source of inspiration for his team. They received
encouragement on seeing River Nyanza, believing that they were close to
their destination. They also became the more anxious and determined to
accomplish their goal. Then they began to discountenance the weight of the
loads they were bearing. They finally arrived at Mutesa’s court and everyone
seemed to be curious, watching them as if in suspicion. The reception they
were accorded was solemn, devoid of the rash celebration that is often
marked with dancing and drumming. It dawned on them that Henry
represented the white race. Mutesa’s court was summoned and the “tall black
king” greeted the “bearded white man” (line 55). This was followed by the
closing of the “gate of polished reed” (line 60), marking the formal
acceptance of the European incursion to East Africa.
3.5 Thematic Concern
As an imaginative recreation of the historic visit of Henry Stanley to King
Mutesa, “Stanley Meets Mutesa” thematises the meeting of the African and
the European, drawing attention to the importance which the visit – that at
first appeared unimportant – would have. The encounter between Henry
Stanley and Mutesa then becomes important for them as it marks the meeting
of their cultures and the people they represented. In a sense, you may say that
the meeting indicated in a symbolic manner the coming of colonialism to
East Africa. The irony of the meeting is that the acceptance of Henry Stanley
was to mean the forfeiture of his own authority and the right of his people to
self-governance.
3.6 Technique
Let us now take a look at the devices that the poet employs in the poem. Our
interest is in the effect of each of them. We assume that the devices
contribute to the success of the poem.
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
(a) Structure: You will observe that even though the poem has six
stanzas its structural development is closely linked to its concern. The
poem can be divided into three sections. The first (lines 1-26) has to
do with the journey of Stanley’s team, with particular focus on all that
they endured. The second (lies 7-41) focuses on the change of attitude
that the sighting of the Nyanza River brought. The last (42-end)
describes the arrival of the expedition at Mutesa’s court.
(b) Symbolism: A symbol is anything or idea that represents something
else. It should by now be obvious to you that the meeting of Mutesa
and Stanley is symbolic of the meeting of the West with East Africa,
each of them personifying the values of their people.
(c) Contrast: One other element of technique that the poet uses is
contrast. This occurs when ideas, experiences or people that are
clearly in opposition are placed side by side to show this difference.
Contrast occurs regularly in the poem. For instance, we are told that
the initial discouragement of the expedition gave way to enthusiasm
and renewed energy when they sighted the Mutesa Court. The
impression of contrast is also created in the alternating extreme
weather conditions that the team had to endure: “The heat of the day/
The chill of the night” (lines 2-3). Another significant case of contrast
has to do with the disparity between the physical appearances of
Mutesa and Stanley. Mutesa is the “tall black king” (line 54) while his
guest is “the thin bearded white man” (line 55).
(d) Irony: Do you not think that it is ironical that even though the
expedition set out to merely discover the Buganda kingdom (as they
claim to be “bound for a kingdom” (line 6)). This later meant taking
control of the kingdom by extending the British colonial influence to
it.
(e) Metaphor: The reference to Henry Stanley as “the spirit that
inspired” (line 25) and “the light of hope” (line 26) is apt, in the sense
that in leading the expedition he provided the encouragement for
members of his team.
(f) Parallelism: There are cases of parallelism in the poem, all
displaying the poet’s conscious attempt at achieving some beauty in
the replacement of related or conflicting ideas. This has added some
elegance to the poem as a whole. Examples include:
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
1. The heat of the day
The chill of the night (lines 2-3)
2. He the spirit that inspired
He the light of hope (lines 25-26)
3. Hearts beat faster
Loads felt lighter (lines 34-35).
(g) Synecoche: Synecoche is a device which makes it possible for the
poet to represent a part as whole. In this poem there is an
occurrence of this in
“The village looks on behind banana groves (line 42)
Here the action of the inhabitants of the village is ascribed to the
village.
(h) Simile: Indirect comparison, called simile, is also evident in the
poem. Examples include:
1. The Nile and the Nyanza
Lay like twins
(lines 29-30)
2. The march leapt on chanting
Like young gazelles to a water-hole
(lines 32-33)
The use of simile in the poem reveals the ability of the poet to imaginatively
impress facts upon the reader.
(i) Diction: What is your impression about the words the poet uses? You
may have observed that the words are generally simple and
appropriate, the type suitable for a narrative poem of its
nature.
(j) Tone: You will also note that the attitude of the poet to his subjectmatter
is more of suspicion and mistrust, especially as the
poem actually reflects on the experience being recreated. The
benefit of hindsight enables the poet to read meaning to the
meeting of Mutesa and Stanley.
4.0 Conclusion
David Rubadiri’s “Stanley Meets Mutesa” is a narrative poem which can only
be properly appreciated in relation to the historical event which it engages. It
gives us an insight into the use that a poet can put the imagination. In a sense,
the devices the poet employs and contributes to the success of the poem.
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
5.0 Summary
The poem is a typical African poem in the sense that it draws on history.
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
Comment on the effectiveness of technique in David Rubadiri’s “Stanley
Meets Mutesa
7.0 Further Reading
Ogungbesan, Kolawole and D. Woolger, Images and Impression. Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1978.
Roscoe, Adrian. Uhuru’s Fire: African Literature: East to South. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1977.
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
UNIT 3
TEXTUAL ANALYSIS OF POETIC WORKS:
English Poems 1
Table of Contents
1.0
2.0
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
John Milton’s “Sonnet XVII”
Background to the Poem
A Summary of the Poem
Thematic Concerns of the Poem
Technique
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor Marked Assignment
Further Reading.
1.0 Introduction
We have, in the last two units, examined two African poems. What seems to
be common to the poems is a concern for shared experiences. In the next two
units we shall be studying poems drawn from the English tradition. You must
have been noting in the previous units the variety that characterises poetic
expression in terms of length, technique and the subjects of poetic
exploration.
2.0 Objectives
In this unit we shall analyse an English poem. At the end of the unit you
should be able to;
(a) discuss the thematic interest of the poem
(b) identify and relate the devices employed in the poem to its success or
failure
(c) recognise the Sonnet as a poetic type.
3.0 John Milton’s Sonnet XVII
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
The following poem, Sonnet XVII, by John Milton, is to be studied in this
unit. Read it carefully:
Sonnet XVII
When I consider how my light is spent,
Ere half my days in this dark world and wide,
And that one talent which is death to hide
Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent
To serve therewith my maker, and present
My true account, lest he returning, chide
‘Doth God exact day-labour, light denied?
I fondly ask; but Patience, to prevent
The murmur, son replies: ‘God doth not need
Either man’s work or his own gifts; who best
Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best; his state
Is kingly – thousands at his bidding speed
And post o’er land and ocean without rest:
They also serve who only stand and wait’
1652? 1673
- John Milton
3.1 Background to the Poem
John Milton lived between 1608 and 1674. He remains one of the outstanding
and committed poets in the English poetic tradition. He was inclined towards
religious poetry. His Christian outlook is given expression in much of his
work. He is best known for Paradise Lost which he dictated while he was
going blind. The poem was completed in 1665. His total blindness is dated
between 1651 and 1652.
Incidentally you need to draw on this insight into Milton’s blindness in order
to understand the poem. In plain terms, the poem is about his blindness. It
explores his blindness in the light of the Christian idea of stewardship in
which man is seen as accountable to God. This comes out clearly in a parable
told by Jesus during His earthly ministry about the Kingdom of Heaven in
Matthew 25:14-30. The parable talks about a lord who gave his servants
various amounts of money. The wise ones invested what they were given
while the foolish one simply buried his. Their master was pleased with those
that profited from using their talents and blamed the one that foolishly buried
his. As far as Milton was concerned, his blindness would make him bury his
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
talent. His worry was whether God would blame him for not utilising his
talent which he saw as the ability to write poems. In a sense, the poem is a
product of Milton’s anxiety.
Apart from the fact that the poem draws on Milton’s personal experience, it is
also a sonnet. That means it is a fourteen-line poem. The sonnet originated
from Italy and was originally concerned with the subject of love. A sonnet is
traditionally divided into two main parts: the first eight lines (called the octet)
and the last six (the sextet). It is normal for the development of the idea in a
poem to be based on this division. For instance, the octet can raise a problem
which the sextet will resolve. Milton put the sonnet to a special use.
Exercise I
a. In what sense is the Parable of the Kingdom of Heaven told by
Jesus related to Milton’s concern in this poem?
b. What two factors about the poem and the poet serve as
background information for our understanding of this poem?
3.2 A Summary of the Poem
You must have observed from the background information provided to
appreciate this poem that deliberate effort has been made to tell you what
made John Milton to write this poem. Now read the poem again and try to
answer the following question:
The poem, you will observe, starts with the poet-persona complaining. He
was aware of the fact that he had some talent or gift from God which – like
the servants in the parable told by Jesus – he had to put to good use and also
profit with. At the same time he was conscious of his blindness. He felt that
he was already going blind before half his days (“my light” line 1) was
already gone. The loss of sight made him to consider the world as dark. At
the same time he would not want to bury his God-given ability to write
poems, knowing the penalty that might come from doing otherwise (“which
is death to hide” l. 3). His dilemma comes from the fact that while he would
want to serve God he was naturally handicapped. But he would not know
what would be his fate due to this. As far as he was concerned it was not
unwillingness on his part that would make him not put his talent to use.
While the octet states the argument of the poet, the answer to his question
comes in the sextet in which Patience, apparently a personification of the
virtue, replies the agitated poet. He is told that God is not made richer by
man’s works or the gift He gives men and that there are different ways to
serve God. Some may have to patiently endure their agony. God is already in
matchless glory and has countless angels at His service. Many other people
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
would have to just express their commitment and service by merely waiting
on Him if they have no ability to run errands. In short, there are various ways
of serving God.
What you will observe in this poem is that it is more of an externalisation of
the thought of the poet. In other words, the poet seems to be thinking aloud in
the poem. The first octet poses a question to which the sextet provides an
answer.
Exercise II
In what way does the poem relate the idea of the talent to his personal
experience?
3.3 Thematic Concerns of the Poem
The poem is primarily concerned with exploring man’s responsibility and
accountability to God. The persona is burdened due to the awareness that he
must put his God-given ability to use. But he sees his blindness as a barrier to
realising his desire of being a poet. The question this raises has to do with
whether what God expects from people is based on their ability. In his own
case it would not be possible to render the kind of service he would have
loved to God due to his disability and he would like to be assured that his
failure to execute his desire would not be taken as a form of irresponsibility.
There is also the related theme of God’s just treatment which emerges in the
last six lines of the poem that is the sextet. The anxiety of the poet only gives
way when he is told by Patience that God would not expect people to give
what they do not have the ability to give to Him in the form of service. This
presents God as just and considerate in His expectation. This would bring a
lot of relief to Milton who already asked whether God would expect the blind
to do as much as their counterparts with the benefit of sight.
Self-assessment questions
· Make a distinction between the octet and the sextet.
· Identify the two thematic interests of John Milton’s “Sonnet XVII”.
3.4 Technique
Milton’s “Sonnet XVII” succeeds largely because the poet has adopted
approximate devices. The most important of them are as follows:
(a) Biblical Allusion
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
The allusion to the Parable of the Kingdom of Heaven told by Jesus in
Matthew 25:14-30 is so central to the success of this poem that
attention has to be drawn to it. The allusion is important in the sense
that it provides a basis for the persona to compare his state with that
of the unfaithful servants that buried their talents. The ideas that are
explored in the poem are also rooted in this biblical allusion. This
suggests that it is impossible to properly appreciate the poem without
a reference to the parable that inspired it. There is also an allusion to
Matthew 11:29-30 where there is an encouragement to followers of
Jesus to patiently bear their yoke.
(b) Structure
You must have also observed that the poem is divided into two parts
which coincide with the conventional division of a sonnet. The first
eight lines (the octet) explore the problem bothering the persona while
the last six (the sextet) answer his question and thereby render his
anxiety unnecessary. This structure is logical as questions normally
come before answers. This makes the poem complete in the sense that
it is self-contained.
(c) Diction
The fact that the inspiration for the writing of this poem is derived
from the Bible is also reflected in the poet’s choice of words. Much
of the poem is built around the idea of the “talent” (line 3) which
originally meant a weight of gold. In the context of this poem it
means an ability or a potential. There is also a reference to “yoke” in
line 11. This is derived from the admonition of Jesus in Matthew
11:29-30 in which reference is made to the cost of following Jesus.
These words are consistent with the concern of the poem and also
appropriately used in such a way that their suggestions are not
hidden.
(d) Pun
You need to also note that the poet does not just carefully select
words. He also plays on them. There are two of such that you need to
pay attention to. The first is “dark” which occurs in line 2. It at once
suggests that everything turned dark for Milton after his blindness and
that the world is full of evil and ungodliness. The latter suggestion is
essentially a Christian idea. The second word on which the poet plays
is “light” (lines 1, 7). Light here also suggests Milton’s lost sight and,
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
by extension, his life. His relevance was, no doubt, reduced after the
loss of his sight. This probably accounts for his lament as to the
danger his condition would pose to his self-fulfilment.
(e) Poetic Mode
The poem is presented as a dramatic monologue. This enables the
persona to directly express his experience. The fact that the persona
relates his experience in this manner makes it more believable.
4.0 Conclusion
John Milton’s “Sonnet XVII” is an interesting exploration of the poet’s
personal experience. It demonstrates the viability of personal experience as
raw material for poetic expression. The use to which the poet puts a religious
conviction provides a basis for exploring his own aspiration in the light of the
outlook on human aspiration that his religious persuasion dictates. The poet
in a way reveals that religion and reason can be reconciled.
5.0 Summary
In this unit we have been able to study a poem which, in addition to being
autobiographical, is also an example of the sonnet. It is also remarkable that
the poem departs from the convention of exploring subjects of love in sonnets
to treating a subject within the sphere of religion. This in a way demonstrates
the capacity of poetic forms to lend themselves to uses other than those which
convention assigns them when the need arises.
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
1. Examine the harmony between theme and technique in John Milton’s
Sonnet XVII.
7.0 Further Reading
Hollander, John and Frank Kermode. The Literature of Renaissance
England. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973.
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
UNIT 4
TEXTUAL ANALYSIS OF POETIC WORKS:
English Poems 11
Table of Contents
1.0
2.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
John Keats:
Background to the Poem
Theme of “Ode on a Grecian Urn”
Analysis of the Poem
Poetic Devices
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor Marked Assignment
Further Reading
1.0 Introduction:
Our analysis of John Milton’s poem in the last unit must have shown you
how virtually any issue can be made a subject of poetic exploration. It is not
in every case, however, that the poetics draw on their experiences. There are
occasions that they embark on exploring ideas which have timeless appeal.
Poems with this kind of orientation do not lose their relevance as they state
truths that can be appreciated everywhere and all the time. This is the quality
that the poem we are studying in this unit, John Keats’ “ Ode on a Grecian
Urn”, has.
2.0 Objectives:
At the end of this unit, you should be able to
(a) discuss the thematic concern of Keats’ “Ode on a Grecian Urn”.
(b) relate the use of imagery to the success of the poem.
(c ) establish the connection between them.
3.1 “John Keats” John Keats was born on October 31, 1795 in London.
3.2 Background to the Poem
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
It is important that the title of the poem indicates that it is an ode. The Ode is
a poem that praises a person, an animal or an object. The poem then praises
an urn from Greece. The urn is a container in which the ashes of a dead
person are kept. It is often decorated and preserved by the loved ones of the
dead from Greece and makes it an object of admiration.
3.3 Theme of the Poem
Bearing what you have been told about the poem in mind try to read the
poem now
1
Ode on a Grecian Urn
Tho still unravish’d bride of quietness,
Thou foster-child of silence and slow time,
Sylvan historian, who cast this express
A flowery tale more sweetly than our rhyme:
What leaf-fring’d legend haunts about the shape?
Of deities or mortals, or of both,
In Tempe or the dales of Arcady?
What men or gods are these? What maidens loth?
What mad pursuit? What struggle to escape?
What pipes and timbrels ? What mild ecstasy?
2
Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard
Are sweeter; therefore, ye soft pipes, play on;
Not to the sensual ear, but, more endear’d,
Pipe to the spirit deities of no tone:
Fair youth, beneath the trees, thou canst not leave
They soup, no ever can those trees be bare;
Bold Lover, never, never canst thou kiss,
Thou winning near the god – yet, do not grieve;
She cannot fade, though thou hast not thy bliss,
For ever unit thou love, and she be fair!
Ah, happy, happy, boughs! That cannot shed
Your leaves, nor ever bid the spring adieu;
3
And, happy melodist, unwearied,
For ever piping songs for ever new;
More happy love! More happy, happy love!
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
For ever warm and still to be enjoy’d,
For ever panting, and for ever young;
All breathing human passion far above,
That leaves a heart high-sorrowful and cloy’d,
A burning forehead, and a parching tongue.
4
Who are these coming to the sacrifice?
To what green altar, O mysterious priest,
Lead’est thou that heifer loving at the skies,
And all their silken flanks wish garlands direst?
What little town by river or sea shore,
Or mountain –built with peaceful citadel,
And, silent be; and not a soul to tell
Why thou art desolate, can e’er return
5
O Attic shape ! Fair attitude ! with brede
Of marble men and maidens overwrought,
With forest branches and the trodden weed;
Thou silent form, dost tease us out of thought
As doth eternity: Cold Pastoral !
When old age shall tie generation waste,
Thou shalt remain, in midst of other woe
Than ours, a friend to man, to whom thou say’st,
Beauty is truth, truth, ----that is all
Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know
------------- John Keats
Contrary to what we have been doing in the previous units, we shall start with
the thematic interests of this poem and then go on to analyse it. The reason
for this is that the theme cannot be separated from everything that is said in
the entire poem
The poem is concerned with the permanence of art which contrasts with the
transient nature of human life. The theme itself emerges from the
observation of the poet. His admiration of the Grecian Urn made him
recognise that, as against the ashes of the dead which it is meant to preserve;
its beauty will last for generations. The focus of the poet is concentrated on
the decorations on the vase which depict various actions and scenes. These,
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
to the poet, will outline the artist that created them. By extension he is
drawing attention to the superiority of art to lived experience.
3.4 Analysis of the Poem
The object of admiration in this poem is a vase, which, as the title suggests, is
of Grecian origin. As an ode, the poem praises the eternity of the urn. He
succeeds in doing this by identifying each of the paintings on it and
commenting on the permanence of art which each of them suggests to him.
Let us analyse the poem based on the stanzas.
Stanza I
The first stanza, you should note, is a direct address to the urn. Keats sees it
as “the still unravish bride of quietness” (line 1) to show that it is unchanging
over a long time. He also describes it as “Sylvan historian” (line 3) to indicate
that it has been in existence for long. He feels that the urn is more admirable
than poetry. He then turns to the paintings on the vase and wonders what the
stories behind the figures on the vase are. He is also not sure whether the
personalities he has on the vase are gods or ordinary human beings. Other
figures on the vase are that of a maiden that is being pursued and that of a
piper.
Stanza 2
Keats now concentrates on the paintings on the urn. He draws attention to
the superior beauty of the imagination. For instance, he feels that the music of
the piper on the vase is to be preferred to audible music because it is
permanent. He therefore encourages the piper to play on. In any case, the
piper cannot do otherwise. He is bound to play on so long as the tree under
which he plays cannot leave him. All other paintings and scenes on the vase
are bound by the same principle. The lover that is in pursuit of the maiden
will, so long as the vase exists, be ever caught in the pursuit and he will never
succeed in getting at the woman. His consolation is that at the same time, the
maiden will also not be lost. This suggests that their age will endure and the
woman also will never age.
Stanza 3
What you will observe in the third stanza is show an effort to restate a similar
argument. This time around the focus of Keats is shifted to the piper under
the tree. The leaves of the tree, according to Keats, will also never be shed
just as the piper will also keep piping. He would never grow tired or lose his
earnestness.
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
Stanza 4
The next painting that engages the attention of the poet is that of people
going to offer a sacrifice. Led by a priest, they head for an altar. He
imagines that the city from which they are coming will have to endure their
absence for ever as the permanence of artistic representation will make it
impossible for them to ever return. This is a way of saying that the town has
lost them forever.
Stanza 5
In this last stanza, the poet returns to the vase, describing it as “Attic Shape”,
suggesting something made in the ancient city of Athens. It is beautifully
made of marble. He emphasises the ideas of timelessness that the vase
provokes. This almost suggests that it creates the impression that the world
of the imagination is more real than the world of men, in addition to its
beauty, just because it is permanent. The urn is ageless and appears to be a
“Cold Pastoral” because it is silent and because it is drama from the rural
world. Keats believes that the urn will outline many more generations. He
draws a compromise between the urn and truth because the two share the
quality of permanence.
Self assessment questions
(a) How many paintings are identified on the urn?
(b) How does each of them relate to the theme of the poem?
3.5 Poetic Devices
“Ode on a Grecian Urn” no doubt makes a remarkable impression because of
what it says but we stand to appreciate it better by & examining the devices it
employs.
Exercise 1
Take another look at the poem. Which techniques can you identify?
(a) Rhetorical Questions
Read through stanza one again. What do you observe? The last four
lines end with a question mark. The use of questions in this manner is
important. The questions are not meant to be answered. They are
called rhetorical questions. The answer to them is assumed to be self-
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
evident. The questions give force to the amazement of the poet on
seeing the urn. They suggest that he admires the urn.
(b) Repetition
Certain words and ideas are repeated in the poem. This has the effect
of emphasising the idea that Keats attaches importance to
consequently; his central argument in the poem is reinforced in the
process. For instance, “happy” is repeated four times in stanza three.
Happiness is associated with the permanent state of the painted tree
and the paper under it. “For ever” is also used in stanza two and
repeated five times in stanza three.
(c) Paradox
There is a case of paradox in this opening statement in stanza two:
“Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard. Are sweeter; therefore,
ye soft pipes, play on”. Even though this may not immediately make
some sense, it is still true. What exists in the world of art may be
better when we consider its permanence. Music that is heard will
soon fade away and be forgotten while the one that is imagined will
outline it.
(d) Transferred Epithet
There is a case of transferred epithet in “pious morn” in line 37. The
piety ascribed to the morning is odd. Only human beings can be
described as pious. The suggestion that the expression makes is that
the morning on which the people set out to make the sacrifice is a
holy day.
(e) Rhyme Scheme
The poet has made effort to a regular rhyme scheme in the poem.
(f) Allusion
Keats alludes to Tempe, Arcady and Attic which are places in ancient
Greece in which pastoral poetry flourished. This is the relevance of
the poem to the timeless men of art.
(g) Tone
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
The attitude of the poet to his subject, which gives an insight into the
tone of the poem, is one of admiration. The poet-person a
sympathetically identifies with the enduring quality of the urn.
4.0 Conclusion:
“Ode on a Grecian Urn” is interesting, in the sense that it concentrates on a
single idea. The poet does not make the work boring in spite of the fact that
the various images he employs reinforce the same idea.
5.0 Summary
The enduring quality of “Ode on a Grecian Urn” derives from the fact that
issue it engages will also appeal to people of all races and all ages. The
timeless man of art is a recurrent theme in literature.
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
1. Critically discuss the thematic concern of John Keats’ “Ode on a
Grecian Urn”. How do any three images in the poem reinforce this
thematic interest?
7.0 Further Reading:
Gettings, Robert, Selected Poems and Letters of Keats London:
Heinemann, 1996.
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
UNIT 5
TEXTUAL ANALYSIS OF POETIC WORKS:
African - American Poetry
Table of Contents
1.0
2.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
African – American Poetry
Claude McKay: The Man and His Art
“If We Must Die”
Background of the Poem
Themes
Technique
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor Marked Assignment
Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
You may have observed that what the poems we have been studying have in
common is that they are written in English, in spite of the fact that they are
drawn from different backgrounds. To a certain extent, poetic works project
the cultural environment within which they are produced. For instance, our
focus in the last two units was on English poems. You would have observed
that Milton’s sonnet and Keats’ ode do not draw so much on shared
experience or make much social reference that will require familiarity with
history for you to understand them. The same cannot be said about African
poetry and poems originating from the African-American or West Indian
traditions. Much of the poetry of these regions is rooted in history and social
experience. This therefore necessitates that we draw on relevant insight that
will deepen our understanding of the poems we are studying.
2.0 Objectives
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
At the end of this unit, you should be able to
(a) Establish the link between African-American history and African-
American poetic expression;
(b) interpret Claude McKay’s “If We Must Die” in the light of the
African - American experience .
(c ) relate the form of “If We Must Die “ to its thematic interest.
3.1 African American Poetry
African-Americans are people of African descent in America. Their
ancestors were originally taken to America as slaves; but they have since
been legally integrated into the African national life as citizens. The journey
towards freedom from slavery, discrimination and marginalisation for the
people was not so easy. What you need to note, however, is that African-
American poetry has recorded the diverse experiences of the people over the
centuries. A study of African-American poetry will give some insight into
the collective struggle of the people for justice, fair treatment and integration
within America. Right from the Negro Spirituals, religious songs that
flourished on the plantation, the work of such pioneer African-American
poets as Phillis Wheatley through the poetry of Paul Lawrence Dunbar,
Claude McKay, Langston Hugh ues, Arna Botemps, Countee Cullen to the
work of Amiri Bareks, Ntozake Shange, the collective experience of the
Black Community has fed the African poetic imagination.
Exercise 1
1. What is the quality that African Poetry and African-American Poetry
have in common?
2. What has been the major concern of the African-American poetic
imagination over the centuries?
3.2 Claude McKay: The Man and His Art
Claude McKay was born in Jamaica in 1890. He came to America in 1912
where he encountered racial discrimination in an intense form. He identified
with the cultural awakening in Harlem in the 1920s and came to be a major
voice among the Harlem Poets. His poetry projects a Pan-African
nationalism, a response to the racial oppression in America, the celebration of
the black identity and the survival of the black man. His work is marked by a
great deal of anger, displeasure and impatience with the American
establishment.
Ironically, the sonnet form proved so useful to him in expressing his anger
and displeasure. His work has since been absorbed into mainstream African-
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
American poetry. “If We Must Die”, which we shall be studying in a
moment, is his best known and probably most anthologised poem.
3.3 “If We Must Die”
If we must die, let is not be like logs. Hunted and penned in an inglorious
spot, while round us bark the mad and hungry dogs, making their mock at our
accursed lot. If we must die, O let us nobly die, so that our precious blood
may not be shed. In vain, then even the monsters we defy shall be
constrained to honour us through death. O kinsmen! we must meet the
common foe!. Though far outnumbered let is show one death – blow! What
though before us lies the open grave? Like men we’ll face the murderous,
covered pack, pressed to the wall, dying, but fighting back
3.4 Background to the Poem
The poem is likely to be better appreciated when read in the context of the
experience that inspired it. McKay was conscious of the racial discrimination
in America. This manifested in the lynching of black people in the south and
the dehumanisation they endured in the work. The poem itself was written as
a response to the Chicago riot in which well over thirty people were killed,
injured and more than one thousand people were rendered homeless.
3.5 Themes
This poem is a passionate call on blacks to resist the oppressive and
dehumanising assault of the white majority on the seemingly helpless black
community. The anger of the poet is apparent and certain thematic interests
emerge in the poem, in spite of its shortness.
Martyrdom: Black martyrdom in the face of the sustained assault
from the intolerant whites is encouraged. Martyrdom emerges as the
logical and dignifying alternative that the black have to resort to. This
is justifiable because there was no basis for the dehumanising
permeation of the blacks in the first place. So long as the act itself
was baseless and unnecessary it was also ungodly. This would suggest
that the blacks are undoubtedly the victims.
The bestiality of white oppression: The poem draws attention to the
related idea of the bestiality of the white oppression. In apparent
negotiation of the idea that blacks are sun-human the poet represents
the acts of oppression and degradation the white visit on the black as
not befitting decent human beings. Hence they are represented as dogs
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
Nobility of the Black Cause: No examination of the poem will be
adequate if you overlook the fact that it takes the nobility of the black
struggle for granted. The call to metyrdom itself is based on the
assumption that the hatred of the blacks by the white establishment
should be seen as ungodly. It is possible to ask: Why should a people
be blamed for being members of a different race? Resistance is
clearly depicted as just, necessary and indispensable.
Exercise 11
1 Identify the three main thematic concerns of Claude McKay’s; “If We
Must Die”.
2 How does an insight into the background of the poem help in
deepening our appreciation of the poem?
3.6 Technique
(a) Form:
You have probably noted that the poem is a sonnet. But unlike
the traditional sonnet that celebrates love, this poem is made to serve
as a vehicle for racial propaganda. The poem is basically a passionate
outburst addressed to the black community in America. It is best
read as an urgent summons to purposeful resistance.
(b) Tone
The tone of this poem particularly appeals to us as it is an element
that facilitates its success. Anger, you will note, is the ruling passion
in the poem. The anger energizes the message it bears so long as the
poet does not pretend to be objective or conciliatory. What he writes
is a call to war and a different tone would not have matched this
declaration of war. The anger and passion that energize the poem
simply stress the seriousness of the poet.
(c) Exclamation
There is a recurrent use of exclamatory remarks in the poem. These
are marked by the use of exclamation marks in lines 8, 9 11, 12 and
14. The urgency of the struggle and the resolve of the poet and his
people in the face of the opposition from the whites necessitate this.
(d) Imagery
The poem effectively uses audio-visual imagery. The poet particularly
relies on imagery drawn from hunting. The relationships between the
blacks and whites are represented through the use of appropriate
imagery. The white oppressors are seen as “dogs” while the victims,
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
the black are shown as “logs”. This at once shows the bestiality of
white oppressors and the fact that the blacks are apparently the
underdogs. The “dogs” are said to be “mad” and “hungry” to
emphasis the irrationality of their actions.
(e) Repetition
The poet finds repetition useful in the poem. The central idea about
the possibility of dying is re-tested in various ways. For instance, the
idea expressed in line 1 is repeated in line 5. The repetition helps in
restating the petition of the poet and proves effective in a speechlike
poem like this, which is intended to achieve some lasting effect.
EXERCISE II
How do the devices used in this poem enhance its success?
4.0 Conclusion
The poem studied in this unit is remarkable in the sense that it demonstrates
the possibility of making the sonnet serve a purpose other than the expression
of sensual passion. Tone incidentally, becomes very important in the poem.
The harmony accounts for the success of the poem.
5.0 Summary
In any study of this poem, the fact that Claude McKay employed the sonnet
for his own purpose should be emphasised. The form, no doubt, demonstrates
its capacity for a variety of uses.
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
Examine the use of tone, repetition and imagery in enhancing the concern of
Claude McKays’ “If We Must Die”.
7.0 Further Reading
Dasylva, A.O. and O.B. Jegede. Poetry in English. Ibadan:
Sam Bookman, 1997.
42
UNIT 6
ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
TEXTUAL ANALYSIS OF POETIC WORKS:
African Oral Poetry – “Salute to the Elephant”
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
Background to “Salute to the Elephant”
Theme/Subject Matter
Technique
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor Marked Assignment
Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
If your outlook on poetry has been shaped mainly by your interaction with
written poetry in the school environment, you are likely to have a limited
experience of poetry. You will then see every poem as the work of an
identifiable writer which can be read and enjoyed privately even when there
is no prospect of ever meeting the author. On the contrary, every society
seems to have a tradition of oral literature in which the emphasis is on the
physical encounter between the poet and the audience. In this case, however,
the performer may not be the composer or author of the text he performs.
Many of the poems that exist in this oral tradition are believed to belong to
the community in which they are found, especially when their original
composers may not be easily identified. When the songs, chants or recitations
that are drawn from the oral tradition are then transcribed and translated, they
tend to lose much of their vitality. This is the sense in which you will need to
approach “Salute to the Elephant”, a traditional Yoruba poem which we shall
study in this unit.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
(a) recognise some of the features in African oral poetry in “Salute to the
Elephant”;
(b) Identify oral poetry as a unique form of poetry with literary value.
3.1 Background to “Salute to the Elephant”
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
The poem we are studying in this unit, “Salute to the Elephant”, is taken from
the Yoruba oral tradition. It is greatly indebted to Ijala, the tradition of poetry
associated with hunters among the Yorubas. Ijala simply relies heavily on the
Yoruba praise tradition, oriki, and the object of admiration may be fellow
hunters, Ogun, the patron god of Yoruba hunters, or animals. “Salute to the
Elephant” is preoccupied with praising the elephant.
Exercise I
Carefully read the following poem:
Salute to the Elephant
O elephant, possessor of a savings-basket full of money
O elephant, huge as a hill, even in a crouching posture
O elephant, enfolded by honour; drawn, flapping fans of war
Demon who saps the branches into many pieces and moves to the
forest farm
O elephant, who ignores ‘I have fled to my father for refuge’,
Let alone “to my mother”
Mountainous Animal, Huge Beast who tears a man like a garment
And hangs him up on a tree.
The sight of whom causes people to stampede towards a hill of safety
My chant is a salute to the elephant
Ajanaku who walks with a heavy tread.
Demon who swallows palm-fruit bunches whole, even with the spiky
pistil-cells
O elephant, prince named Laaye, massive animal black slightly in
complexion
O elephant, who single-handily causes a tremor in a dense tropical
forest
O elephant, who stands sturdy and erect, who walks slowly as if
reluctantly
O elephant, whom one sees and points towards in all one’s fingers.
The hunter’s boast at home is not repeated when he really meets the
elephant.
The hunter’s boast at home is not repeated before the elephant
Ajanaku looks back with difficulty like a person suffering from a sprained
neck
The elephant has a porter’s-knot without having any load on his head
The elephant’s head is his burden which he balances
O elephant, prince named Laaye, “O death, please stop following me”
This is part and parcel of the elephant’s appellation.
If you wish to know the elephant, the elephant who is a veritable ferryman
The elephant who in honour marches, the elephant who
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
continually swings his trunk,
His upper fly-switch,
It’s the elephant whose eyes are veritable water-jars
O elephant, the vagrant par excellence,
Whose molar teeth are as wide as palm-oil pits in Ijesaland
O elephant, lord of the forest, respectfully called Oriiribobo
O elephant, whose teeth are like shifts.
One tooth of his is a porter’s load, O elephant, fondly called Otiko
Who has a beast-of-burden’s proper neck
O elephant, whom the hunter sometimes sees face to face
O elephant, whom the hunter of other times sees from the rear
Beast who carries mortars and yet walks with a swaggering gait
Primeval leper, animal treading ponderously.
(trans: A. Babalola)
Read the poem again, paying attention to its subject matter and technique.
3.2 Theme/Subject Matter
This poem is a praise song in the tradition of Ijala, Yoruba hunters’ chant. It
celebrates the awesome presence of the elephant by recognising its
intimidating size, its destructive nature and its economic value. Much of the
poem identifies the attributes and tendencies of the elephant that the poet
finds remarkable. In actual fact, the poem does not say a lot. All that we have
in the poem is a situation in which repetition is overused and the same ideas
are stated over and over again.
Exercise II
Find out the number of times “O elephant” occurs in the poem. You will
discover that it occurs in no fewer than fifteen times.
3.3 Technique
What you need to note here is the fact that almost every element of technique
in the poem cannot be separated from the nature of the poem as a product of
the Yoruba oral tradition. Let us take a look at some of the devices.
* Hyperbole
The use of exaggeration in the poem is consistent with its intention to praise
the elephant. This is a feature of Yoruba praise poetry, oriki, which is
dominant in Ijala. You need to note that the hyperbolic expressions in the
poem generally take the form of descriptive labels or epithets. Examples are:
45
ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
(a) “Demon who swallows palm-fruit bunches whole, even with the spiky
pistil cells”
(line 12)
(b) “O elephant, who single-handily causes a tremor in a dense tropical
forest
(line 14)
* Apostrophe
The recurrent use of “O elephant” in the poem serves the purpose of creating
the impression that the animal is being addressed in the poem and therefore
emphasises the fact that the elephant and all its characteristics are significant
in the world of the poem. The address occurs at the beginning of the lines.
* Metaphor
In a bid to give concrete suggestions about the elephant and thereby deepen
our insight into its nature and habits, appropriate metaphors are employed in
the chant. For instance, the reference to the elephant as “demon” (line 4)
indicates its abnormal and often destructive nature. It is also called “veritable
ferry-man” (line 24) to indicate that it is a killer. The reference to the
elephant as “primeval leper” (line 37) is a description of its rough and short
toes that invite comparison with those of a leper.
* Simile
You must know how a simile differs from a metaphor. Comparison in a
metaphor is direct, while it is indirect in a simile. The poem employs the two
types. The similes in the poem help to effectively evoke the desired image of
the elephant. To emphasise the strength of the elephant, it is described as
“Huge Beast who tears a man like a garment” (line 7). The elephant is also
the animal “Whose molar teeth are as wide as palm-oil pits in Ijesaland” (line
29).
* Onomatopoeia
The use of Oriiribobo (line 30) and Otiko (line 32), which are suggestive
sounds, is intended to reinforce the idea that the elephant is extremely big.
4.0 Conclusion
“Salute to the Elephant” is a product of the oral poetic imagination. What it
has in common with “Ode on a Grecian Urn” by John Keats is the
commitment to celebrating the object that constitutes its focus.
5.0 Summary
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
Whatever we regard as the pleasure and literary merit of the poem is just a
partial reflection of the full experience of the poem. The poem is best enjoyed
in the context of performance in which the appropriate musical
accompaniment, dance and the involvement of the audience will give life to
the poem.
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
“In terms of its preoccupation and method, ‘Salute to the Elephant’ can only
be properly understood as operating in the oral tradition”. Justify this
statement.
7.0 Further Reading
Finnegan, Ruth, Oral Literature in Africa. London: Oxford University Press,
1970.
Mapanje, Jack and Landag White (eds.) Oral Poetry from Africa: An
Anthology. New York: Longman. Inc., 1983.
Okpewho, Isidore. The Heritage of African Poetry . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ??
Senanu, K.E. and T. Vincent, A Selection of African Poetry. Essex:
Longman, 1988.
47
UNIT 7
ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
ANALYSIS OF POETIC WORKS:
Oral Poetry 11
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
The Poetry of Abuse
Theme and Technique in the Poetry of Abuse
Analysis of a Sample Song of Abuse
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor Marked Assignment
Further Reading/References
1.0 Introduction
You will recall that, in introducing our discussion of the African tradition of
oral poetry in the last unit we drew attention to the fact that many of the
songs that circulate orally in most African communities cannot be traced to
particular individuals who can be regarded as their composers. This is not
always the case. Certain composers within the oral tradition can be identified.
In fact, in some cases, their imprints can easily be recognised in their
compositions. This is the case with Komi Ekpe, the composer of the
song/poem we shall study in this poem. His work operates in the tradition of
poetry of abuse called halo among the Ewe people. The Ewes are found in
Ghana, Togo and Benin Republic.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
(a) identify the features of the song of abuse;
(b) analyse the sample poem.
3.1 The Poetry of Abuse
Different societies have their own ways of classifying poetry. It will be
wrong for you to assume that just, because the English poetic tradition
recognises such forms as the ode, the sonnet, the ballad and others, the same
classificatory scheme must exist in African oral poetry. In fact, different
societies in Africa have their ways of classifying the poetic forms within their
cultural environments. Even though certain poetic types occur in many
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
cultural environments, each society has a unique way of classifying its
poetry. The reason for this is obvious: poetic expression is closely tied to
culture. The fact that certain poetic forms exist in a society may be a
reflection of their cultural identity.
The poem that we shall study in this chapter belongs to a popular form of oral
poetry in many West African societies. Even though this type of poetry is
given different names within different environments, it seems to have a
common identity. It is for convenience, best called the song of abuse. The
Yorubas call it Efe. It is known as Halo among the Ewes, while it is called
Udje among the Urhobos. As the name suggests, the song of abuse is
basically preoccupied with satirising people and it is an important instrument
for regulating morality in the traditional African context. This probably
explains why the poet often enjoys some immunity.
Exercise I
Identify three forms of song of abuse in West Africa. What purpose does this
form of poetry serve?
3.2 Theme and Technique in the Poetry of Abuse
The primary concern of the poetry of abuse is to expose misconduct and
thereby make the person so attacked an object of ridicule. This form of poetry
always claims to be promoting some moral principle.
The poetry of abuse generally relies on metaphors and similes in achieving its
goal of outright condemnation of its satirical butt, that is, the target of the
satire. Exaggeration is a common feature of the poetry of abuse. Imagery
drawn from the animal world is often dominant. In many cases, especially
when the song is a product of a conflict between two women, there is always
an excessive use of similes that tend to emphasise physical oddities about the
satirical butt.
Exercise II
(a) What is the main thematic concern of the song of abuse?
(b) Mention three common devices in the poetry of abuse.
3.3 Analysis of a Sample Song of Abuse
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
The poem you are about to read is a typical Halo composed by an Ewe singer
called Komi Ekpe. The song was originally sung in Ewe and translated by
Kofi Awoonor, an Ewe scholar-poet who has also drawn on the Ewe poetic
tradition. Komi Ekpe, as at the time of singing this song, was already
seventy-six years old.
Hm hm hm. Beware,
I will place a load on Kodzo’s head
Nugbleza informed me that
It is the women of Tsiame
Who goaded Kodzo into my song.
Questioners, this becomes the evil firewood
.He’d gathered; his hands decayed.
His feet decayed
I am the poet; I am not afraid of song
10 Kodzo, winding in the air, his anus-agape
His face long and curved
Like the lagoon egret’s beck
Call him here I say call him
and let me see his face.
He is the man from whom the wind runs
The man who eats off the farm
He hasn’t planted;
His face bent like the evil hoe
On its handle. Behold ei ei ei
Kodzo did something. I forgive him his debt.
20 I will insult him since he poked
A stick into the flying ant’s grove
Amegavi said he has some walk
And he took Kodzo’s part.
The back of his head tapers off
As if they’d built a fetish hut
On his breathing spot
His face wags, a fool with a white ass.
The monkey opened his anus
In display to the owner of the farm.
The lion caught a game, alas,
30 His children took it away from him
Kodzo’s homestead shall fall
Shall surely fall.
Questioners, let evil men die
Let death knock down the evil doer
If I were the fetish in the creator’s house
That will be your redemption
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
Kodzo, this imbecile, evil animal
Who fucks others’ wives fatteningly
His buttocks run off, his teeth yellow
His penis has wound a rope around the waist
40 Pulling him around and away,
His backside runs into a slope,
His eye twisted like the sun-inspector,
He has many supporters in Tsiame
His mouth as long as the pig
Blowing the twin whistle
Something indeed has happened
– Komi Ekpe
Halo, the tradition of poetry to which this song belongs is not so prominent
among the Ewes again, just because the tradition of abuse is generally
becoming unpopular in most communities in the face of growing urbanisation
and the impact of modernity which do not tolerate the slander and defamation
that the song of abuse promotes.
In this song, Komi Ekpe attacks Kodzo and his supporters, the women of
Tsiame, who encouraged him to abuse kodzo. You need to note that halo, as
a tradition of verbal combat, could either draw individuals together (as in this
case) or pitch two sections of a community in verbal warfare. The ensuing
contest is between two halo poets, Kodzo and Ekpe. All that can be said
about the poem is that Ekpe feels provoked by the rumour of an impending
verbal assault from Kodzo.
Almost every song of abuse employs the same devices. All that is involved in
the halo is a verbal exchange in which emphasis is on visual imagery. This
explains the recurrent use of similes and metaphors, both of which combine
to blackmail and discredit Kodzo. The halo makes use of homely imagery
and repeated insults. Consequently, the insults sound monotonous. A closer
look at the devices employed in the poem is necessary.
*Exaggeration
This is about the most important strategy in the poetry of abuse. This often
occurs through the piling up of attributes and qualities that are meant to
portray the person being attacked as either ugly, detestable or immoral. In
this poem, exaggeration is the device employed in creating a bad image for
Kodzo. His physical appearance is described as horrible. A few examples are:
(a) The back of his head tapers off
As if they’d built a fetish hut
On his breathing spot (lines 24-26)
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
(g) his mouth as long as the pig
blowing the twin whistle
Something indeed has happened (lines 44-46)
(h) He is the man from whom the wind runs (line 15)
* Metaphors
Metaphors help to deepen the assault on the target of the abuse. The same
effect is achieved through the use of metaphors and similes. Effort is
generally made to draw on imagery from the immediate environment. This
makes it homely. For instance,
“the evil firewood
He’d gathered … (lines 6-7)
is a reference to the attack of Kodzo on Ekpe. As far as he is concerned, it is
going to spell his doom. It is not merely an accidental assault but a deliberate
effort at engineering his own disaster. By saying that the women of Tsiame
“goaded Kodzo into my song” (line 5), Ekpe means that the women of the
said village caused the verbal combat between him and Kodzo. In describing
the act of provocation that Kodzo’s assault on him represents, Ekpe says that:
“… he poked
A stick into the flying ant’s grove” (lines 20-21)
This suggests that this act of provocation would be disastrous to him.
* Similes
You must have also noticed cases of indirect comparison in the poem. The
similes help Ekpe achieve his purpose of abusing the poet. They particularly
draw attention to his physical appearance, emphasising his ugliness. He, for
instance, says
(a) His face long and curved
Like the lagoon egret’s beak (lines 11 – 12)
(b) His mouth as long as the pig
Blowing the twin whistle (lines 44– 45)
His eye twisted like the sun-inspector, (line 42)
* Diction
The device of words in the poetry of abuse, as is evident in Ekpe’s song, is
characterised by obscenity. In the bid to abuse, the poet resorts to dirty
details about the one being attacked. It is impossible to verify the validity of
the claims made about the satirical butt. This is just an extension of the abuse.
Expressions that are banished from decent interactions are used especially
when the moral life of the persons concerned is the focus. We find
statements like.
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
(a) Kodzo,…………………
Who fucks others’ wives fatteningly by
(lines 37 – 38)
(b) His penis has wound a rope around the waist
(line 39)
You should however note that what we consider indecent today is not so
offensive in ordinary discussions in the traditional African society. As the
values of that society are giving way to the new order represented by the
modern, in which Western values and estuzel principles rooted in Christian
and Islamic practices are becoming influential, traditional practices are
increasingly becoming strange.
* Curses
You may have observed that Komi Ekpe does not stop at abusing Kodzo. He
goes ahead to invoke curses on him. This shows the extent that those engaged
in verbal combats can go. He declares at the height of his anger:
Kodzo’s homestead shall fall (line 31). This indicates how destructive the
conflict between two halo poets can be. This may indicate a readiness to
employ supernatural forces against the one being attacked.
* Conversational Quality
The song of abuse is normally addressed to a person or a group of people.
What you will notice in the sample we are analysing is that the singer
assumes he is addressing Kodzo. He often uses what is very close to the
direct address by occasionally mentioning Kodzo’a name.
We can assume that Kodzo is not in sight. But the fact that the song of abuse
is addressed to him is not in doubt. The impression created in the poem is that
the song itself is a response to Kodzo’s song. It may then be said that Ekpe’s
song represents his own turn in a verbal combat. The poet draws attention to
the fact that he is addressing Kodzo from time to time.
Kodzo, this imbecile , evil animal (line 37)
* Tone
If you are asked to comment on the tone of the poem, you should not find it
difficult to say that it is caustic, bitter and extremely critical. You cannot
expect anything different from this in a song of abuse. The caustic nature of
the tone reflects the desire to avenge the verbal assault earlier launched by the
opponent.
* Structure
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
This song is structurally divided into two parts. The poet starts with a
justification of his verbal attack on Kodzo. This comes in the first nine lines
of the poem. The remaining part of the poem is devoted to the verbal attack
on Kodzo. This represents a logical programme in the song of abuse. The
poet of abuse journals justifies his effort by stating that he has been provoked
or attacked unfairly by another person. This creates the basis for all the attack
the poet plans to launch in retaliation in the rest of the poem.
4.0 Conclusion
The song of abuse is just a form of oral poetry. It was meant to be performed
and not just read. Reading the transcribed version, which has also been
translated from Ewe, does not give you a good experience of it. The element
of performance distinguishes oral from written poetry. In reality, the
performance of poetry in the traditional African context could involve
drumming, clapping, audience participation, and the use of such musical
accompaniment as the rattle or the gong.
5.0 Summary
The song of abuse is not just meant to entertain. It represents a deliberate
effort at self-assertion and an important channel for dramatizing conflicts in
African communities. Some contemporary African poets are either
consciously or otherwise drawing on this tradition. The influence of the
poetry of abuse is evident in varying degrees in the works of Kofi Awoonor ,
Kofi Anyidoho (Ewe), Niyi Osundare, Femi Fatoba (Yoruba), Tanure Ojaide
(Urhobo), and Okof p’ Bitek (Acholi, Uganda). You need to note however,
that all that we have in the works of these poets take the form of either the
adaptation of the tradition of insult or the application of the principle in the
criticism of the conduct of public office holders in post-independence Africa.
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
Compare “Salute to the Elephant” And Komi Ekpe’s “Hm hm hm. Beware”,
paying attention to Subject matter and technique.
7.0 Further Reading/References
Awoonor, Kofi. Guardians of the Sacred Word : we Poetry . New York:
Nok Publishers, 1974.
PRACTICAL APPRECIATION OF POETRY 1
54
UNIT 8
ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
Concepts and Principles of Appreciation
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
The Nature of Poetry
Basic Concepts in the Criticism of Poetry.
Elements of Poetic Technique
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor Marked Assignment
Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
You would have observed that, in the previous units, we have been studying
each poem in the context of the information available to us about the
circumstances that produced them. The information may be related to the
cultural practice or the socio-political situation of autobiographical details
surrounding the writing of the poem.
No doubt, this helps to deepen our insight and gives us some measure of
confidence in our interaction with the poems. But this is not always the case.
In the first place, it is not possible to gain access to all the information we
need to understand a poem.
Moreover, a certain degree of competence is needed to read any poem that
you encounter at any time. The aspect of literary studies that develops this is
called practical criticism. This explains why people are often exposed to
what is called “Unseen Poetry”, which enables you to respond critically to a
poem about which you may have no background information. The
assumption is that there is enough in the poem to elicit some critical response
from you. The thematic concern of the poem, its subject matter and the
devices employed in the poem, are always the aspects that attract attention in
this case.
2.0 Objectives:
At the end of this unit, you should be able to
(a) recognise the practical criticism of poetry as an aspect of the study of
poetry.
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
(b) Identify the elements of poetry that are relevant to its criticism.
3.1 The Nature of Poetry
You have been reading some poems in this course. If you are asked to say
something about poetry you are most likely to restate what so many students
believe about poetry – that it is difficult. This is not always true. What many
people do not realise is that poetry is closer to us than we would like to see it.
You are probably from a society in which every stage in life or experience –
birth, wedding, child naming, etc, is marked with a ceremony. Each of such
ceremonies attracts people and singing is often brought in. You may also be
attending a church where hymns are sung. If any of these does not apply to
you, you may have been fond of singing lullabies to children to make them
sleep. All these activities have poetry. The problem we often have is with
the formal study of poetry. The foregoing should convincedyou that poetry,
apart from being the oldest and commonest of all the literary genres, is also
the closest to us.
What we must however admit is the fact that poetry is unique. The major
qualities of poetry which define its nature are as follows:
· Economy: Perhaps this is one quality of poetry that makes many people fear
it. Poetry economises a lot in the use of language. What a novelist would
describe in six pages can be expressed in just ten lines of a poem. This has
implications for the use of language. Words may be loaded and even made to
serve functions other than those that we traditionally assign to them. A good
poet says a lot in a few words.
· Suggestions: Whereas meaning is almost always stated in explicit terms in
prose passages, poetry tends to be generally suggestive. This explains why
words that are suggestive are often preferred in poetry. Poets tend to be more
careful in the choice and use of words. They see some words as more
appropriate than others. The fact that after reading some poems you still
cannot say what their arguments are with confidence confirms this.
· Poetic Licence: Poetic language tends to violate certain rules of grammar
and creates new words and usages. The poet is therefore allowed to make use
of language in very strange and often unconventional ways if the need arises.
· This is why, for instance, we often have cases of inversion, i.e. the
arrangement of a line of poetry in a way that disorganises pattern. For
instance, we can have “overcome we shall” in a poem as opposed to “We
shall overcome” which is grammatical
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
Exercise I
Identify three qualities of poetry that define its unique nature.
3.2 Basic Concepts in the Criticism of Poetry
Even though we are concerned with the practical criticism of poetry in this
unit, it is important that you identify the elements of poetry that are relevant
to this task. By elements of poetry we mean those features that should attract
the attention of any one interested in studying poetry. We can only identify
some of these.
· Theme
Theme is the central argument or statement that a poem makes about its
subject matter. It often runs through the poem. It is however possible to have
more than a theme in a work. At times, a poem can have a theme and one or
two sub-themes. The length of a poem may have to do with whether it will
have just one theme. It is important to note however that theme is not the
same as the subject matter of a poem. The theme of a poem can always be
stated briefly. It is the statement the poet makes about the subject matter.
· Subject Matter
The subject matter of a poem refers to the subject that it engages. For
instance it may be love, war, politics, etc. Anything can serve as the subject
matter of a poem. Let us identify the different between subject matter and
theme. If three poems, for instance, explore the subject of love, they are not
likely to make the same statement about it. One can be about the mutual
hypocrisies of two lovers while another is about unreturned love, and yet
another about platonic love, that is, love that is devoid of any carnal desire.
The unique statement that each of them makes about love is what we consider
their theme but they are on the same subject. If, however, you have to talk
about the subject matter of a poem, all you need is to talk about all that it
says. This will give anyone who is yet to read it an idea of what it is all about.
You will need to still note that theme and subject matter always go together
because they are related. In fact, they are however considered together when
we talk about the content of a work of poetry. Content, in this case simply
has to do with what a poem or any other literary work says.
· Form
If theme and subject matter constitute the content of a poem, then its other
important aspect is the form. If content is about what a poem says or is
about, form tells us how this is achieved. In other words, if form is the
container, content is what it holds.
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So many elements come under form. Most of these are often considered as
elements of technique.
3.3 ELEMENTS OF POETIC TECHNIQUE
- Poetic Form
In studying a poem, you need to find out if the poem has been written
in conformity with the rules of a particular poetic form. It may be an
ode, a sonnet, an epic or a ballard, etc. If it operates in any of the poetic
forms mentioned above, it is closed form. Closed forms are poems which
have rules as to how they are to be written in terms of length, rhyme scheme,
structural development or function. The open form gives the poet a lot of
freedom as to how to write, as the poem does not need to conform to any
established pattern in terms of rhyme scheme or length of the poem.
- Verification
Closely related to poetic form is verification. This refers to how the poem is
written. You will need to find out if the poem is written in stanzas. If it is
written in stanzas, how many stanzas make it up and how many lines are in
the stanzas? You may also need to state whether the stanzas have the same
number of lines. Some poets do not use stanzas. They rather use verse
paragraphs. The verse paragraph uses an indented line, very much like you
often find at the beginning of another paragraph, to mark another section of
the poem. This is what we find in T.S Eliot’s “Journey of the Magic”.
- Structure
The structure of a poem may be important if there is a link between the idea it
explores and its physical design. For instance, you may have to find out if a
particular section of a poem raises a question to which another provides an
answer. It is not in every case that the structure of the poem is important.
EXERCISE II
Take another look at
(a) John Milton’s “Sonnet XVII” in Unit 3 and consider its structure
in relation to its concern.
(b) How significant is the structure of the poem?
- Diction
You would have observed that we occasionally draw attention to diction in
studying some of the poems in the earlier units. Diction is an important
element in the study of poetry. In fact, you cannot overlook it if you want to
gain an insight into the criticism of poetry.
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Diction simply refers to the choice of words in a work. It is possible for a
pattern to emerge as to how a poet uses words. In that case, some careful
study of this pattern may deepen your understanding of the poem. A poem
may make use of simple or difficult words. The words may be either
monosyllabic or polysyllabic. If the words are generally simple, then it may
be easier to understand the poem. You may also find out if the words are
drawn from a field or a particular experience. It is possible for a poet to draw
his words from the vocabulary of religion, medicine, geography, warfare etc.
For instance, a poet draws his diction from hunting in a poem that has to do
with the love of a man for an unwilling lady. That is significant. At other
times, the words used in a poem may be difficult or bookish or be very
suggestive rather than being expressed in plain terms. The diction can either
facilitate or impede your understanding of a poem. Normally, a poem that
you understand at first reading is likely to be one which maintains its
ordinary meaning.
- Tone
The voice that you hear in each poem is that of the person called persona .
The voice of the person merges with the voice of the poet at times. When
that happens, we refer to the voice as that of the poet-persona. The speaking
voice in any poem is the one that dictates the tone. Tone refers to the attitude
of the poet to his subject. The tone can be sympathetic, bitter, cynical,
sorrowful, or condemnatory, etc.
Exercise III
Take another look at Claude McKay’s “If We Must Die” in Unit 5 and John
Keats’ “Ode on a Grecian Urn” in Unit 4 and compare the tone of the two
poems. Describe the relationship between the tones of the two poems; are
they similar or contradictory?
- Mood
Mood is closely related to tone and it reflects the general atmosphere in a
poem. It is a function of the poet’s attitude.
4.0 Conclusion
In this unit, we have examined some elements of poetry that you will
normally need to consider in your own criticism of poetry. Even though not
all of these elements will be important in your appreciation of every poem,
there is a need to pay close attention to them. All that matters is that you
know how to recognise them.
5.0 Summary
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
The elements of poetry that you need to be familiar with are so many that it
is not possible for us to exhaust the discussion in this unit. We shall continue
with the topic in the next unit.
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
Discuss the theme of any FOUR poems you have studied in this course
7.0 Further Reading
Books, C & R. P.Warren Understanding Poetry New York: Holt, Rinehart
and Winston, 1938
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
PRACTICAL APPRECIATION OF POETRY 11
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.1
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
Elements of Poetic Technique (continued)
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor Marked Assignment
Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
In the last unit, we started discussing elements of poetry in a bid to identify
the principles relevant to the appreciation of poetry. We have not completed
the discussion. This unit is the concluding part of the study.
1.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to (a) identify the elements of
poetic technique that are relevant to the practical appreciation of poetry but
are not discussed in the last unit.
3.1 Elements of Poetic Technique (Cont’d)
- Imagery An image is a mental picture which is created by words. It
normally appeals to our senses. Can you remember any time you
read something and it seemed as if you were imagining what you
were reading? It is possible for this experience to come through the
senses of sight, taste, hearing, touch or smell. In a way, the sensory
appeal that images make to us is what enables us to partake of the
experience that they are associated with.
If an image is then a mental picture that has reasonable appeal, it
follows that we can experience it in various ways. Hence we refer to
images that appeal to our sense of seeing as visual images. Those that
appeal to our hearing are referred to as audible images. Gustatory
imagery appeals to the sense of taste; motile or kinesthetic imagery
appeals to the sense of movement, while tactile imagery appeals to the
sense of touch. Imagery is closely related to the senses.
Exercise I
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
John Keats’: Ode on a Grecian Urn” in Unit 4 is mainly concerned with
describing the urn and the images on it. What kind of imagery is dominant
in it to the use of such figures of speech as simile and metaphor? We shall
take a look at them shortly.
- Symbolism
A symbol is an object, person or animal that represents something else.
Symbols generally operate as cultural conventions. For instance, colours are
made to suggest certain ideas. Red represents danger and passion in different
contexts. The flag of a country is also a symbolic representation of the
country in question. If an object can symbolise different ideas in various
situations, then you will need to pay attention to what each represents in each
context. The best known symbols may be the cross and the crescent. They
represent Christianity and Islam respectively.
Symbols used in poetry may not be easily recognisable. It often takes
repeated careful readings of the same poem to identify a symbol. A poet may
decide to use known symbols or create his own symbols in a poem. In many
cases, poets find it convenient to make some images to symbolise some ideas
or experiences.
Exercise II
What is the effect of the use of symbolism in “Stanley Meets Mutess”?
- Pun
Pun refers to a deliberate effort at playing on words. Most of the time, this
takes the form of making a word have more than one meaning.
- Contrast
This refers to a situation in which ideas, experiences or people, are placed in
opposite situations to draw attention to the differences between them.
Consider, for instance, the ways David Rubadiri presents Henry Stanley and
King Mutesa in “Stanley Meets Mutesa”.
- Allusion
This refers to a deliberate reference to an experience or story outside the text
which is related to the issues being examined. It is often intended to broaden
our understanding of the matter or problem being explored. Thus, it is
possible to have biblical allusion, historical allusion, literary allusion or even
clerical allusion.
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
- Metaphor
This is an imaginary comparison in which a direct relationship is established
between two things or ideas. The basis of this link is always a shared attribute
or quality. When, for instance, a man is described as a lion, what is implied
is that he shares a quality identified with the lion, say boldness.
- Simile
Unlike metaphor in which comparison is directly established between two
things, simile effects indirect comparison. The relationship is introduced as
and like” You may have discovered some similes in the earlier units in this
study.
- Rhetorical Question
A rhetorical question is a question which is meant to merely strengthen the
point that is being made. It is therefore not meant to elicit an answer. It is
assumed that the answer to the question is implied. You will remember that
some of these were identified in “Stanley meets Mutesa”.
- Sound Devices
Certain devices are associated with sounds. Among these are alliteration and
assurance. Alliteration is the repetition of consonant sounds in a group of
words. In “Good girls do not grumble”, alliteration is used because the same
sound begins “good, “girls” and “grumble”.
- Assurance
This on the other hand, refers to the repetition of vowels in a group of
words. There is a case of assurance in “early efforts will effect a change”,
i.e. “early”, “efforts” and “effect”.
- Rhyme
Rhyme occurs when the last sounds at the end of a poem form a
plural.
4.0 Conclusion
In this unit, we have identified elements of poetry that were not discussed in
Unit 9. You need to realise that all these do not necessarily have to be present
in a poem.
5.0 Summary
It is only necessary to be familiar with the elements of poetry so that you can
identify and draw attention to them in your own appreciation of poetry.
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
6.0 Further Reading
Brooks, C and R.P. Warren Understanding Poetry . New York: Holt,
Rinechart and Winston, 1938
Appreciating a Poem
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UNIT 10
ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
Reading the Poem for Subject Matter
Discovering the Theme
Commenting on the Form of a Poem
A Sample Appreciation
Question and answers
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor Marked Assignment
Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
In the last two units we have examined the elements of poetry. The units are
meant to acquaint you with what we often consider in the appreciation of
poetry. The point has to be made, however, that the appreciation of literature
or what we call literary criticism, is a skill you develop with practice.
Familiarity with the elements of poetry that we have considered is always
necessary. But having these concepts is just to prepare you for the
appreciation of poetry itself. We intend to put the principles into practice in
this unit by demonstrating the procedure for the practical appreciation of
poetry.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to identify the procedure for the
appreciation of poetry.
· Recognize the elements that are relevant to the appreciation of a
poem.
· Apply the procedure outlined in the sample appreciation in the
criticism of a poem.
3.1 Reading the Poem for Subject Matter
The appreciation of poetry may be more demanding that the appreciation of
drama or prose narrative just because poetry tends to be more imaginative,
suggestive and often difficult. What this implies is that, it is easier to
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misinterpret a poem. The right approach to the reading of poetry, therefore,
is to be more patient and more discerning. The first step in the reading of a
poem is to discover its subject matter. This is generally easier to discover
than the theme (s).
A careful reading of a poem may give an idea of what the poem is about in a
general sense, depending on how difficult the poem is. But it is not proper to
depend on just one reading of the poem. There is always a temptation to feel
that one has gained enough insight into the poem to be able to read it. While
some poems can be understood the first time you read them, others need to be
read over and over again. The risk one stands if one depends on just a
reading of a poem to form one opinion about it is that of misreading poems
that are deceptively simple. The fact that a poem does not use difficult words
may not suggest that it is simple. It may just be a convenient way for the
poet to hide its meaning. In fact, we often make a distinction between
denotative and connotative meanings in poetry. The denotative meaning of a
poem will reflect the meaning of a poem that emerges from the dictionary
meaning of the words in it. While the connotative meaning comes from what
the entire poem suggests. This may not be apparent and demands some
careful exploration.
Repeated readings of a poem will always help you to guard against hasty and
often wrong judgment about what a poem is about. A second reading should
lead you to a better understanding of the poem. You will normally feel more
confident to answer questions on the poem after the second reading. You
may, however, need to read it again to confirm that your understanding of a
poem is correct. Repeated readings may still be necessary to answer specific
questions.
In sum, what you do when you are answering questions on what a poem is
about is to see if you can paraphrase the poem as a while. This normally
helps you to answer questions that have to do with what the poem is about,
that is, its subject matter. A summary may not be exactly the same as the
paraphrase as it may not be as detailed as a paraphrase. Hence a summary
may be too short to make any meaning.
Exercise
· Why is it necessary for you not to depend on only one reading of a poem?
· What is the difference between the denotative and connotative meanings
of a poem?
3.2 Discovering the Theme
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
We have already observed that it is easier to discover the subject matter of a
poem than its theme. This should just tell you that, there is a difference
between the two. You must however not that once you have been able to
discover the subject matter; you are not far from discussing the theme.
Theme is the central argument or idea in a poem. It may not be explicitly
stated and may even not be present in some poems. Some poems simply state
their themes in the first line. In some others, it emerges as a repeated
statement which sums up the note of the poem.
We must also import that it is easier to discover the themes of some poems
than others. What is always needed is to ensure that you properly read a poem
before attempting to comment on its central argument. Do not forget that it is
possible to have more than a theme in a poem. Why there is main theme you
can also have sub-themes.
3.3 Commenting on the Form of a Poem
You will recall that we have in the last two units drawn attention to the fact
that a poem is made up of basically two components: Content and Form.
While content embraces subject matter and theme, form is concerned with
everything that has to do with method, style or technique. These include
poetic form, verification, diction, symbolism, imagery, allusion, tone, mood,
rhyme scheme etc.
It is good that you are already familiar with these elements of technique but
you must realise that not all of them will occur in one single poem. This then
suggests that you should be sensitive enough to discover the elements of
technique that feature in a poem. In most cases, however, diction and tone
tend to be important in reading almost every poem.
All that we have said boils down to the fact that you do not have to fix your
mind as to what you are going to say about a poem until you have read it.
You cannot talk about allusion, for instance, while discussing a poem if it
does not occur there. At the same time, it is necessary to say that your ability
to comment on a poem will reflect a lot about your exposure and critical
judgment. This explains why some people are quick to draw attention to
certain elements in a poem.
3.4 A Sample Appreciation
Let us now apply the procedure that we have developed to the reading of the
following poem
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
· Read this poem carefully and answer the questions that follow.
The Pulley
When God at first made man,
Having a glass of blessings standing by,
Let us (said he) poure on him all we can,
Let the world’s riches, which despaired lie,
5. Contract into a span
So strength first made a way
Then beauties flow’d, then wisdom, honour, pleasure.
When almost all was out, God made a stay,
Perceiving that alone of all his treasure,
10. Rest in the bottom lay
For if I should (said he)
Bestow this Jewell also on my creature,
He would adore my gifts instead of me,
And rest in nature, not the God of Nature.
15. So both should have be.
Yet let him keep the rest,
But keep them with ripping restlessness
May tosse him to my breast
3.5 Questions
1. Comment on the subject matter of the poem.
2. What would you consider the main argument of this poem?
3. What do you find remarkable about the structure, diction and tone of
the poem?
4. How appropriate is the image of the pulley to the concern of the
poem?
5. Comment on the use of pun in the poem.
Answers
1. The poem imaginatively recreates the story of creation. God is
presented as not only the creature of man but also as the one who
bestowed blessings – riches, strength, beauty, wisdom, honour and
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
pleasure on him. God however stopped when rest, the last of the
blessings, was about to be granted. God decided not to granted rest to
man because he felt man would be self-sufficient if given rest. Giving
man rest, God felt, would make him adore the blessings rather than
Himself – Rest would then be the only channel God would use to
draw man to Himself, for, so long as man is restless, he would always
be drawn to God.
2. The central argument in the poem is man’s dependence on God. This
is tied to man’s lack of self-sufficiency which would have enabled
him to feel that he could do without God. Restlessness is the channel
through which God draws man back to Himself. This, the poem
argues, is what indicates man’s need of God.
3. Structurally, the poem is divided into four stanzas. The first three
lines have five lines while the fourth has three lines. The first three
stanzas narrate the story leading to God’s insistence that man should
depend on Him. The last simply states the result of this – God’s
decision to deny man rest.
The choice of words in the poem is appropriate. Even though the
words are largely archaic, indicating that the poem was written long
ago. We, for instance, encounter words like “glasse” (line 2), “poure”
(line 3). “Jewell,” (line12), and “tosse” (line 18). It is not difficult to
understand these words because there are only slight differences in
their spellings. The tone of the poem is argumentative. This aligns
with the biological pattern of the structure of the poem. The poet
reconciles his thought with his tone.
4. The image of the pulley is made symbolic in the poem. It assumes the
status of the conceit. The conceit occurs when an effort is made to
establish a relationship between things or ideas that look unrelated at
first. In this poem what you will observe is that there is an effort to
create a relationship between the pulley and man’s restlessness which is
seen as the very instrument God uses to draw man to Himself. The
pulley then becomes the symbol of restlessness. It is appropriate as a
symbol.
5. The deliberate play on the word “rest” in the poem is very effective. It at
once means rest and the rest, that is, what is left after God had given man
a lot of blessings. This reinforces the argument of the poet
Exercise
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
Read the following poem and answer the questions that follow it.
I want to Go to Keta
I want to go to Keta
before it’s washed away
Before the palm-trees wither
And drawn outside the bay.
I want to go to Keta
Where boys drum all the day
And the girls dance agbadza
To keep the tears away.
I want to go to Keta
While yet they live who care
to point out like a star
that frothing spot out there
Where they would sit with dada
Those days the sea was land
I want to go to Keta
While yet there’s place to stand.
I want to go to Keta
before the tenderness
of grief so keen and bitter
chills to cold callousness
and the vagueness of laughter
drowns the shared joy of pain.
I want to go to Keta –
It might not long remain.
- Kobena Eyi Acquah.
1. Comment on the central argument of the poem.
2. How does the use of repetition enhance the success of the poem?
3. Does the tone of the poem have any relationship with its thematic
interest?
4.0 Conclusion
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
The practical appreciation of poetry that you are being introduced to can be
very exciting. You only need to develop your critical ability by interacting
with many poems. Do not forget that each time you are asked to comment on
a poem that you have never seen or read, the questions you will be asked will
normally be based on what is said in the poem. You are not expected to bring
in any information that is not contained in the poem into your reading of the
poem.
5.0 Summary
What this unit and the two earlier ones are intended to achieve is to introduce
you to the practical criticism of poetry. It is not even possible to teach you
everything that you need to know about the appreciation of poetry in one
single course.
As you keep on reading and writing about literature you will acquire both the
skill and the language needed for the study of poetry.
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
Read the following poem and answer the questions that follow it.
For Ken
Compressed giant,
This loss, proportioned
More than the cause
Is larger than you
In size.
It is equally only
By the daily departures
In turns and scores,
Of the finished and fed-up
And the eternal tears drilled
On the sorrow-laden land.
The injury is written
Deep in my soul
Learning a manuscript
To remain and remind
Me of the deeds
Left undone
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
1. Comment on the subject matter of the poem.
2. How do the subject matter of the poem and tone reveal the form of
the poem
3. Which word in stanza tells you about the poet’s vocation?
Comment on it effectively and the insight it gives into the poet’s
diction.
4. Why does the poet particularly miss Ken?
7. 0 Further Reading
Brookes, C. W and R.P. Warren, Understanding Poetry. New York: Holt ,
Rinehart and Winston, 1938.
UNIT 11
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
The Nature of Drama
Table of Content
1.0
2.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
What is Drama?
Origin of Drama
The Nature of Drama
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor marked Assignment
Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
We have examined various aspects of poetry. In the rest of the units in this
course, our focus would be on drama, another form of literature. Drama is
apparently different from poetry and prose narrative because it can both be
read as text and watched on stage. While drama shares certain qualities and
elements with the other forms of literature, it is also unique in the sense of
having some unique features.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to
· Recognise the peculiarity of drama as a form of literature.
· Identify the basis principles and elements of drama.
3.1 What is Drama?
You may wonder why we are raising this question. If you are asked this same
question, you will definitely have an answer. One can guess that your answer
will reflect your understanding of drama based on your exposure to it. Let us
assume that each one of us will give different definitions based on a peculiar
understanding of the subject. A better approach may be to examine the
various ways drama has been defined so we can note the qualities of drama
that are highlighted.
In the everyday use of the word drama, the element of conflict is often given
prominence. This particularly emerges from the way it is seen in the mass
media. The dramatic is any situation which creates a sense of the unexpected
or the abnormal. At other times, the dramatic is limited to that which
involves action in the sense of demonstration. For instance, a teacher may be
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
said to be dramatic if he injects life into his teaching by acting out situations
and experiences that he is describing.
For our purpose, a broader and more universal understanding of the dramatic
is needed. For a start, you should recognise the fact that drama involves
some components which no informed examination can overlook. These
components are ACTION, DIALOGUE and CONFLICT. Drama brings all
these together to make a meaningful whole. We shall take a closer look at
these aspects of drama in a moment. However, we must immediately admit
that the ultimate experience of drama is the presentation on stage before an
audience. This implies that it has a massage to communicate and has some
relevance to human experience. This is probably why the concept of
MIMESIS or imitation is often emphasised in relation to drama. To say that
drama is MIMETIC is implies that it is imitative of reality. The mimetic
impulse of drama is one feature that makes it appeal to people. In other
words, it is the quality that makes it relevant. Let us for a moment consider
the components of drama that we earlier identified.
ACTION
This is what keeps the plot of a play moving. The play emerges from the
enactment of actions before an audience. Acting generally generates other
actions. Conflict evolves in the process until there is a climate under which
the plot is finally terminated through the resolution or denouement.
CHARACTER
Drama is impossible without people. People who are allotted roles in a play
are called characters. Character is an important component of drama as it
enables the dramatist to ascribe qualities and roles which are played out in the
interactions of the personages in the play. Character is to dramatise what
people are to society.
DIALOGUE
The verbal exchanges among characters in a play help to realise the intention
of a playwright. Just as a novelist narrates his story, the playwright depends
on the interaction of characters to expand his ideas.
Characters are made to speak in such a way that the situations desired by the
writer will be created. Even though the writer often supplies relevant
background information, the characters always play out the writer’s
intentions in their action and verbal exchanges with the exception of MIME
that does not use dialogue, most forms of drama depend largely on dialogue.
At times, some characters also embark on an extensive revelation of their
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
minds to the audience such bursts called soliloquies. It is normal that
characters be assigned the language that is appropriate to their social status.
CONFLICT
Conflict is another aspect of drama, you will need to recognise. It naturally
grows from tendencies that manifest when the play reaches the CLIMAX.
3.2 Origin of Drama
It may interest you to know that there have been debates as to the origins of
drama. You should not be surprised at this. It is customary for scholars to
advance arguments and counter-arguments on matters of interest. Scholarly
debates are meant to help us to properly understand issues by scrutinizing
them and subjecting them to critical assessment. There are mainly three
positions or theories that have been proposed to explain the origin of drama.
Let us quickly add that there may not be only one explanation of drama in
different parts of the world.
Ritual Origin Theory
The theory that insists on the ritual origin of drama is about the most
influential. It suggests that the roots of drama may be traced to ritual
observances. This ritual would normally involve a ceremony in which the
priest played an important role at a designated location. The priest would
also wear a special dress especially meant for the occasion. The role, dress
and utterances of the priest will have parallels in the theatre. The case of the
Dionysian ritual forces in a drama. The constructing actions and forces are
eventually resolved at the end in what is known as DENOUNTION in
conflict. Greece has often been cited as a case point this explains why the
roots of Greek drama are generally traced to the ritual observances in the
temple of Dionysus.
The Mimetic Impulse Theory
One other attempt at explaining the origin of drama suggests that we cannot
divorce drama from the tendency to imitate actions and experiences as a way
of seeking to understand them better.
Exercise I
1. What is drama?
2. Identify FOUR components of drama
3. Identify and discuss two theories that explain the origin of drama.
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3.3 The Nature of Drama
You need to note that drama mirrors society. It has also developed and
absorbed the major conditions of various dramatists over the ages. The
unique identify of drama is that while, like other forms of literature, it can be
read as and it can also be experienced on stage. But there are certain aspects
of drama that mark it is different from the prose narrative which is realized
through narration, drama only unfolds through dialogue. While the novel is
also divided into chapters and a poem is written mostly in stanzas, drama is
divided into Acts and Scenes. Interesting dramatic practice allows the
dramatist a lot of latitude. There is no rule specifying how long a play can
be. William Shakespeare made the fire – Act structure the standard for his
plays. Many playwrights have since adopted other standards.
While dialogue is central to the advancement of action in Acts and Scenes,
STAGE DIRECTORS help give shape to actions on stage and they represent
the playwright’s intervention. A few plays make use of the NARRATOR
whose duty it is to give some insight into actions to be anticipated.
In addition to the fact that a drama text can be read by an individual in the
privacy of his residence, the AUDIENCE in the theatre can give immediate
reaction to a play which is being presented on stage.
It is also possible to have a sense of PLOT in a play. Without a clear
understanding of the story line it is impossible to properly appreciate a play.
Exercise II
How are the following related to drama?
(a) Acts and Scenes
(b) Stage directors
(c) Climax?
It is always necessary for you to try to identify the central character in a play
who is called the PROTAGONIST.
In many cases, the actions in the play will resolve round the protagonist. All
other characters in the play must also be seen and assessed to determine the
role they are assigned. Most of the time, the language a character is allotted
will reveal a lot about his social position, level of education, and so on.
4.0 Conclusion
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The world of drama is an exciting world, one in which there is entertainment
and the portrayal of a variety of character traits. Drama also engages many
issues bordering on our religious, social, political and economic experiences.
These are issues you may need to draw attention to while assessing a play. In
a sense, the experience of drama makes it much more related to society. The
immediate experience of drama in the theatre itself is a pointer to this.
5.0 Summary
This unit has drawn attention to the uniqueness of drama. Our emphasis has
been that drama is both oral literature and a performance. This unit must
have laid the foundation for further explorations in drama in the subsequent
units.
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
Write short notes on any four of the following in relation to drama.
(a) Dialogue
(b) Acts and Scenes
(c) Character
(d) Mime
(e) Action
(f) Stage directors
7.0 Further Reading
Dasylva, A .O Dramatic Literature: A Critical Source Book Ibadan : Sam
Bookman Education and Communication Services, 1997.
Eghagha, Hope. “Introduction to Drama” In The English Compendium ( Eds).
Leke Fakoya and Steve Ogunpitan. Lagos: Department of English,
Lagos State University, 2001. 468 – 478.
UNIT 12
Dramatic Elements and Devices
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Table of Content
1.0
2.0
3.1
3.2
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
Elements of Drama
Dramatic Techniques
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor Marked Assignment
Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
In the previous unit, we introduced dramatic literature by drawing attention to
the basic aspect of drama which would help us define drama and its nature.
You need to know that drama also has certain elements and techniques that
you should be familiar with.
When you are familiar with these, it would not be difficult for you to
appreciate a play. The advantage that the discussion of these elements will
give you at this point is that it will be very easy for you to follow our
discussion of the plays that have been placed on the reading list for this
course when each of them is being studied.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
· Identify the concepts and principles necessary for the reading and
enjoyment of a play;
· Recognise the main element of technique employed in drama.
3.1 Elements of Drama
Dramatic literature, you will soon discover, is very rich. Your enjoyment of it
will be determined by your ability to recognise some of its components. In
this section of the unit, we shall endeavour to take a look at some of them. If
a few of the concepts referred to in the previous chapter are discussed once
again it is just because they are no important that we must keep so referring
to them.
Plot
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The plot refers to the story that a play tells. Normally, the events are
arranged sequentially. This does not happen all the time. Some of the plays
distort the sequence of events. What you do is to reconstruct the play. The
fact what of plot of a play is not sequential or chronological does not
necessarily suggest that you will have any difficulty understanding it.
Setting
Setting generally refers to the location of a literary work. The setting is both
a reference to the placement of a work in both time and place. The locale or
environment in which a play is set will determine a lot about it. The setting is
often related to the focus or concern of the play.
Theme
Each play makes a statement about the social world. This may emerge from
an exploration of the entire play. The theme is the central message of a play.
It is however possible to have sub-themes along with major dramatists who
seek to make statements that have universal validity in their works.
Generally, plays that treat common human problems make statements that
have timeless relevance and consequently make more appeal as they speak to
people of all ages and at all places.
Characterisation
You will recall that we saw in the last unit that a play is not possible without
people. This is not all that you need to know. Characters do not just occur in
a play. Playwrights take care to create the right kind of characters to serve
their purpose.
In the first place, a playwright creates characters in line with his purpose.
Most of the time the characters are types. Typical characters are meant to
represent certain categories of people in society. A character may represent
people or members of the ruling elite, and another may represent the poor and
the oppressed that are often at the mercy of the rich and powerful.
Dramatists always try to delineate characters, that is, establish the individual
identities of characters, through the particular traits that make the characters
out. In most cases, language is used. For instance, you must have observed
that many of the uneducated characters that feature in plays on the television
are often made to speak pidgin, while their bosses speaks standard English.
Language thus becomes a yardstick for character delineation in this case. In
addition to this, the characters will be made to wear dresses that will reflect
their social status on stage.
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In almost every play, there are characters that act prominent roles. These are
called major characters. The others is called minor characters. The most
prominent characters in a play are called the protagonist. It is possible to
further describe characters in a play by finding out whether they are flat. Flat
characters are those that embody certain qualities they are not capable of
growing (i.e. changing). They simply personify some values e.g.
faithfulness, goodness etc. The individual identities of these characters are
not established. They are found in didactic plays, a good example of which is
Everyman. Round characters, on the other hand, are those that have
individual identities. They can change in the course of a play. From all that
we have said about characterization it should be easy for you to guess what
characterization is all about. It means the pattern adapted in the creation of
characters in a work. This includes roles and tendencies assigned to
particular characters.
Exercise 1
Comment briefly on the following elements of drama:
(a) Theme
(b) Plot
(c) Setting
(d) Characterisation
Exposition, Complication, Climax, Denouement/Resolution/Conclusion
These four elements are related to the plot of a play. Exposition refers to the
phase of the plot in which the characters are just being introduced. It is at
this stage that a lot is revealed to us about the characters before they are seen
in action. The exposition may give us some insight into the past of the
characters if this is important for us to understand them.
The complication emerges when in the course of the play there is an obstacle
on the way of the protagonist. The climax makes the height of the conflict in
the play. At this point the stage is set for the major act that will lead to the
resolution of the major problem in the play.
What follows the climax is the denouement which in French means the
“unifying of a knot”. It is also known as resolution or conclusion.
3.2 Dramatic Techniques
This may be a convenient point to draw attention to some techniques that are
commonly used in dramatic works. You will discover these techniques in the
texts you are to study in this course.
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Suspense
Suspense is a technique by which the playwright keeps the reader/audience in
anxious expectation of what will happen next. It is a good way of sustaining
their interest in the play. It is a common strategy in drama.
Comic Relief
This is a moment of light or seemingly unserious action which is marked by
laughter after some serious or tragic action. As the name suggests, it is
intended to create some atmosphere of relief in a play. The comic relief is
often provided by clowns (characters that are meant to entertain others) in the
plays of Shakespeare. They crack jokes or do some other funny things that
will make the audience laugh and thereby get rid of the tension that might
have been created earlier by a serious action or experience.
Flashback
The flashback technique enables the playwright to bring an experience in the
past to the present to illuminate a problem or our understanding of a matter.
Foreshadowing
This is a technique which enables a playwright to limit at an experience in the
future. It creates anxiety and anticipation of the experience.
Dramatic Irony
This occurs when an event or situation is seen in a particular way by a
character in a play whereas the audience and some other characters have a
proper outlook on it. It creates anxiety when it intensifies a tragic experience.
Dens ex Mac Luna
This is a technique through which a supernatural force is brought in to
facilitate some action or experience. This technique originally involved
bringing a god to the stage to solve a problem.
Alienation effect
This is a technique popularized by the German playwrights and theatre
directors to inject some detachment into the way actors and the audience
relates with their plays. So that they will, not show much emotional
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involvement. It may involve the literaction between the actors and the
audience.
Exercise II
How do flashback and comic relief operate in a play?
4.0 Conclusion
This unit has drawn your attention to elements of drama and some dramatic
techniques. You need to note that these principles are better understood in
relation to particular plays. Each dramatic with often brings some ingenuity
to the use of each of the elements and techniques.
5.0 Summary
Most of the concepts explored in this unit are important as they help us define
the variety of situations you can encounter in dramatic literature. It is
necessary for you to realise that it is not in every play that all these elements
will occur. We shall be taking a look at the various forms of drama. This
will enable us to further discover some ideas and concepts that are associated
with each of these forms.
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
Write short notes on any FOUR of the following, using adequate illustration:
from any plays you have read:
(a) Characterisation
(b) Plot
(c) Denouement
(d) Comic relief
(e) Dramatic irony
7.0 Further Reading
Dasylva, A.O Dramatic Literature: A Critical Source Book Ibadan : Sam
Bookman Educational and Communication Services, 1997.
Kennedy, X.J. Literature: An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry and
Drama.Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1983.
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UNIT 13
Introducing Drama: Tragedy
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Table of Content
1.0
2.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
The Origin of Tragedy
Classical Tragedy: The Aristotelian Tradition
Shakespeare and the Classical Tradition of
Tragedy
Modern Tragedy
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor Marked Assignment
Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
In introducing drama, we cannot overlook its various forms of drama. Our
exploration must however be broad enough to accommodate the
developments over the ages that have transformed dramatic forms. Whatever
we now say about each form must help us in appreciating the texts that we
plan to engage. Each time we talk about tragedy, for example, we have to
find out what constituted tragedy in the Greek tradition and ask if this outlook
on tragedy has not been challenged over the years.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of the unit, you should be able to recognise the uniqueness of
tragedy as forms of drama, appraise the transformation of the concept of
drama from the classical period to the modern. It identifies texts that
illustrate each of the traditions of tragedy in drama.
3.1 The Origin of Tragedy
Scholars seem to have agreed that the roots of tragedy must be traced to the
Greece of the fifth Century BC. Aristotle’s theory of tragedy was formulated
in the fourth century BC. And many people believed that Aristotle simply
prescribed rules with which tragedy should be judged. On the contrary, his
outlook seems to have been shaped by his familiarity with classical tragedies
that had been performed. His theory may then is seen as an attempt to
describe what he had carefully observed. Even though tragedy as a dramatic
form is generally believed to have originated from Greece, it has evolved
over the ages, incorporating changes and modifications of principle and
practice in the modern times.
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3.2 Classical Tragedy: The Aristotelian Tradition
Aristotle’s Poetics remains a good guide to the Greek tradition of tragedy
which is commonly referred to as classical drama. As earlier stated, his ideas
must have been shaped by his exposure to tragedies that were staged in his
own days. It is however apparent that his outlook on tragedy was largely
shaped by Sophocles’s Oedipus Rex, which also serves as his favourite
example. Aristotle defined tragedy as:
A representation of an action that is worth serious attention, complete in
itself, and some amplified; in a language enriched by a variety of artistic
devices appropriate to the several parts of the play; presented in the form of
action, not narration; by means of pity and fear bringing about the purgation
of emotion? (Cited in English: 473)
It is necessary to analyses the elements of Aristotelian theory of tragedy as
hinted as in the quotation for a proper understanding. They help us to
understand the Classical principles of tragedy.
(a) The Tragedy Hero
The hero in classical tragedy was expected to be a man of noble birth.
The nobility of the character is essential to make his fall tragic. This
simply implies that the fall of the ordinary man was not considered
remarkable as to be a matter of dramatic interest. This explains why
tragic heroes in most of these plays are either kings or other highly
placed
(b) Elevated Language
The language of tragedy, in the classical tradition was also expected
to be elevated. The ideal language for this form of drama was
therefore seen as verse. It is reasonable to conclude that only elevated
language would be suitable for the class of people that were the object
of tragedy. Language was certainly seen as a reflection of the status
of character and the seriousness of the subject of tragic plays.
(c) The Three Unities
Time, place, action: The Aristotelian principles also recognised the
need to ensure that the action of the play is shaped by what have come
to be known as the three unities. One of the principles is that the
action of the play should not extend beyond a day. The unity of place
has to do with the concentration of the action to a locale. The unity of
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action implies that only one action should be seen on the stage at any
time. In addition, there should be only one plot. This equally extends
to the purity of genre, implying that there should not be any
digression. The plot must be so tight that it will not make any room
for a comic relief.
(d) Hubris – the hero’s tragedy flaw
One other feature of classical tragedy, as clarified by Aristotle, has to
do with the weakness of the tragic hero. The tragic hero was expected
to have a weakness in his character which will make his fall possible.
(e) Catharsis – Purgation of Emotion
The last element of classical tragedy has nothing to do with the play
or the hero. It is directly related to the effect of the fall on the
audience. The fall of the tragic hero is expected to elicit the purgation
of emotion (what Aristotle called Catharsis) due to the relief that the
hero will cause.
3.3 Shakespeare and the Classical Tradition of Tragedy
You may have heard about the great English writer called William
Shakespeare. He lived between 1564 and 1616 and is rightly considered a
great playwright of all time. He wrote many plays, many of which are
described as tragedies. Shakespeare ‘s work is best seen as building on the
existing tradition – the classical tradition of tragedy – in the sense that, like
other Elizabeth as playwrights, he recognised the Greek tradition as one on
which to draw while at the same time injecting his own original ideas into the
making of the tragic plays. His main tragedies include Julius Caesar, Hamlet,
Othello, King Lear, Macbeth, Anthony and Cleopatra, Coriolanus and Timon
of Athens.
Even though Shakespeare was a dramatist and not a theorist like Aristotle, we
should be interested in his contribution to the making of tragedy as a dramatic
form. In this case too, it is proper to assess his work in relation to the
standard set by the Classical tradition of tragedy to see the extent to which he
upheld the tradition and the remarkable departures in his work. We may just
consider Shakespeare work against each of the principles defined by
Aristotle. What you will discover is that many of the Principles are upheld
and only a few are disregarded.
A major feature of classical tragedy which also operates in Shakespeare’s
plays has to do with the social status of the tragic hero. The hero must be
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highly placed. This is sustained in Shakespeare’s tragedies. His tragic
heroes are either king, princes on war generals. Each of them is at least
presented as a distinguished member of the society. Othello who is the hero
of a play of the same title is a respected general. There are also kings like
Hamlet and Lear and Macbeth is a nobleman.
The element of hubris itself is evidenced in Shakespeare and tragedies. For
instance, we are made to see Othello as jealous and almost gullible. These
facilitate his errors and eventual fall. The tragic hero in Shakespeare is
generally not faultless. Most of the time, his own weakness is largely
responsible for his fall.
The language of Shakespeare and tragedies is additionally elevated. This is
apparent in the use that he makes of verse. In fact the speeches of the tragic
heroes are generally embellished and this has been a factor that endears his
work to so many readers. The observation of the prescriptions with regard to
the status of the tragic heroes and the adoption of a befitting language for
them in Shakespeare, coupled with the operation of the element of tragic flaw
in them should give you the impression that some other elements of classical
tragedy will naturally become applicable with their fall – the elements of
reversal of fortune, of anagnorisis that the tragic figure experiences, and
catharsis that the audience also partakes of as the emotions of fear and pity
are elicited by the tragic end of the characters.
But you should not be hasty to conclude that Shakespeare upholds all the
principles outlined in the Aristotelian Tradition. He discountenances the idea
of the unities of place, action and time beyond the day his tragedies end in
them. This factor shows that Shakespeare only complied with the Greek
Tradition to the extent that it was relevant to his own intention, after all
traditions are made by man.
Exercise II
To what extent does Shakespeare’s work draw on classical tragedy?
3.4 Modern Tragedy
You may have noticed that the Aristotelian principles of tragedy have been
very influential. The fact that it is possible to assess the work of Shakespeare
using the principles is a clear testimony of this. While it is true that
Shakespeare tries to depart from the Tradition, he at least upholds some of its
principles.
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We may, in fact, say that the classical tradition of tragedy has been the main
standard from which all other traditions define their principles. Apart from
the Greek tradition of tragedy which Aristotle tried to characterize, you
should note however that there is also a modern tradition of tragedy.
Modern tragedy makes a clear departure from the classical convention. This
development is associated with the work of dramatists like Herik Ibsen and
Arthur Miller. At the heart of the concern of modern tragedy is the desire to
assert that not only the highly placed or the noble are fit as subject of tragedy.
In other words, the ordinary man is equally fit as a subject of a tragedy.
Aristotle had thought that only people of high birth could be tragic heroes.
A play like Death of a Salesman by the American playwright is a good
example of a modern tragedy. The tragic hero in the play is Willy Loman
who is by no means a man of high birth. What is suggested in the play, as in
all other plays operating within this tradition is that anybody can be a tragic
hero. In addition, all other requirements prescribed by Aristotle with regard
to the form, duration, language and character of tragic hero are
discountenanced.
4.0 Conclusion
In this unit, we have taken a look at tragedy which is generally taken as an
important form of drama. The fact that the concept of tragedy itself has
evolved over the ages is evidence that tragedy is responding to changes
within the human societies.
Drama responds to the changes in society and culture. We may, for instance,
illustrate this with the difference between Sophocle’s Oedipus Rex and Ola
Rotimi’s The Gods Are Not to Blame . Ola Rotimi’s play is an adaptation of
Sophocles play and it is situated within the Yoruba culture environment.
What we have in it is an attempt to present the substance of Sophocles’ work
in a manner in which it would be meaningful within a different cultural
environment; and the product of this effort emerges as a departure from the
original work in many respects.
5.0 Summary
Greece has had a lot of influence on the development of drama in Europe,
America and Africa. A very good example as the evolution of tragedy is a
dramatic form. We cannot deny the fact that all that we have is a situation in
which conscious effort is only being made to depart from the classical
tradition.
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
Examine the evolution of tragedy as a dramatic form from the Classical to the
modern period.
7.0 Further Reading
Etherton, Michael. The Development of African Drama . London: Hutchinson
University Library for Africa, 1982. (Read Chapter 3.
pp 102 – 142).
Miller, Arthur. “Tragedy and the Common Man” Literature: An Introduction
to fiction, Poetry and Drama (ed) X.J. Kennedy. Boston: Little
Brown and Company, 1983, pp. 1340 – 1343.
UNIT 14
Introducing Drama:
Comedy and Tragicomedy
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
Table of Content
1.0
2.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
The Nature of Comedy
Origin of comedy
Form of comedy
Tragicomedy
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor Marked Assignment
Further Reading and References
1.0 Introduction
You should naturally feel that if tragedy is a form of drama that draws
attention to serious issues and most of the time ends on a note that elicits pity
and fear in the audience, there should be another form of drama that makes a
different impact. If you have felt like that, you are right. In fact, some people
have a way of stating the essence of tragedy. They consider it as a play that
ends on a sad note. That is true in a sense. On the other hand, they consider
Comedy as a play that ends on a happy note. There sound simplistic but they
are true. We shall be studying comedy in this unit. But we shall not stop
these. We would also consider a form of drama which seems to blend the
tragic with the comic this called Tragicomedy.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
· Identify the characteristic features of the Comedy;
· Differentiate between comedy and tragedy;
· Recognize the peculiarity of tragicomedy.
· Mention examples of comedies and tragicomedies.
3.1 The Nature of Comedy
Comedy “comes from the Greek word Komos which means “a revel”, and its
origin is traced to activities surrounding ritual performances in honour of the
Greek god of fertility and wine called Dionysus. Comedy as a form of drama
often considered is the exact opposite of tragedy. It is remarkable that the
popular emblem of drama, a pair of masks, appears to confirm this
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relationship between comedy and tragedy. While the sorrowful one is
representing tragedy, the one smiling designates comedy.
Apparently, comedy is generally characterized by an element of the comic.
But while a whole play may be described as comic, an aspect of a play may
just constitute the comic element. This means that you may find the comic
element in a play, even when it is not a comedy.
Another principle which is used is judging whether a play is a comedy or not
is whether its ends on a happy note. A tragedy is often seen as ending on a
sad note often with the death of the hero. A third principle that we may apply
to identify a comedy also emphasizes its differences from the tragedy. It
suggests that a tragedy appeals to our emotion while a comedy appeals to our
reason. In other words, the comedy makes us think due to the issues it raises.
Exercise I
Identify three features of comedy.
3.2 Origin of Comedy
Comedy, just like Tragedy, is believed to have originated in Greece.
Aristotle saw it as inferior and thus detracts from the importance of its
subject. Aristophanes (448 – 385 BC) is believed to have contributed a lot to
the making of the form. He made comedy a medium for the correction of
social ills. Interestingly, the leaders of Athens were not spared. If satire was
the main concern of Aristophanes’ comedy, Menander, was identified with a
different tradition of comedy, one that focused primarily on love. There have
also been significant contributions to the development of comedy in various
places, including Italy, France and England. Moliere promoted a tradition of
comedy in France in the seventeen century. Shakespeare has also written a
number of comedies which, expectedly, have defined an identity for his
comedy.
Shakespeare’s comedies draw extensively on various sources and are often
set in outlandish places. Most of his comedies are concerned with love, and
music is employed to enliven the unique world that they represent. One of the
best known of his comedies is The Merchant of Venice.
3.3 Forms of Comedy
Comedy is broadly divided into two forms: High Comedy and Low Comedy.
High Comedy is that type of comedy that elicits a form of laughter that is
thoughtful. It is friendly while trying to correct man. Examples of High
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
Comedy are Comedy of Festivities, Comedy of Manners and Situational
Comedy.
Low Comedy, on the other hand, is unsparing in ridiculing man. This is also
reflected in the form of laughter it provokes. Examples of low comedy are
Comedy of Marionette, Slapstick Comedy and Farce.
3.4 Tragicomedy
We have examined two main forms of drama – Tragedy and Comedy. You
will be right if you wonder whether there is a form that stands in between the
two. The form in this case blends the attributes of tragedy and comedy. The
form is called Tragicomedy. It elicits both tragic and comic feelings. A
tragicomedy normally has two plots that must eventually merge.
Exercise
Differentiate between high comedy and low comedy
4.0 Conclusion
It should not be surprising that comedy and tragedy have always been
associated. They have a common root ancient Greece. You must keep this
fact in mind as it enables you explains the tendency to always try t explain
one by differentiating it from the other. But the discussion on comedy should
even appeal more to the average African because most of the plays written by
African playwrights tend to be satirical. Satire, incidentally, is a sub-genre of
comedy. The list of such African plays is long. It will include Wole
Soyinka’s The Trial of Brother Jeroi, Kongi’s Harvest and The Beautification
of an Area Boy.
5.0 Summary
The evolution of dramatic forms as traced in this course you will observe, has
not drawn attention to the African contribution. This is not a way of denying
the existence of drama in African. The fact is that a Dramatic performance in
Africa takes forms other than those that the Western idea of drama
accommodates. In a sense, we admit that there is more to drama than what
ancient Greece, Elizabethan England and the Romans have offered us. This
fact will be clarified much later in your courses that explore African drama
and oral literary traditions.
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
Write short notes on the following:
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
(a) High Comedy
(b) Shakespearean Comedy
(c) Tragicomedy
(d) Low Comedy.
7.0 Further Reading/References
Azeez, Tunji “Drama: An Introduction”. The English Compedium vol ¾
(eds) Leke Fakoya and Stephen Ogun Pitan. Lagos: Department of
English, Lagos State University, 2001.480 – 491
UNIT 15
Texture Analysis of Drama:
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ENG 105 INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE 11
Medieval English Drama - Everyman
Table of Content
1.0
2.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
Medieval English Drama
Morality Plays
Everyman as A Morality Play
Everyman: A Synopsis
Themes in Everyman
Technique in Everyman
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor Marked Assignment
Further Reading and References
1.0 Introduction
In the previous units, we endeavored to examine the elements and forms of
drama. It may interest you to know that some of the forms that are formally
studied are in actual fact not the only forms that exist. From this unit, we
shall start to examine individual dramatic works from different backgrounds
in order to give you a wide exposure to drama. You will soon discover that
drama takes different forms in different environments. Your knowledge of
drama should develop with this exposure to various dramatic works.
We shall start with a play which, though popular, was written by an author
that we do not know anything about. It is called Everyman. What does the
title suggest to you? It is a play that has been passed on from the Middle
Ages in the English tradition. It was probably composed around 1485.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
· Recognise the features of morality plays;
· Analyse the thematic issues in Everyman
3.1 Medieval English Drama
Even though people were aware of the Greek heritage during the Middle
Ages, it had no influence on the drama of the age. The church was so
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influential on the tradition of drama that existed at this time that it was not
only the source of inspiration for it, but Christian festivals like Christmas and
Easter created room for the presentation of these plays. Medieval drama was
essentially intended to help the average Christian faithful to better appreciate
the tenets of his faith and its demands. You should not be surprised to know,
therefore, that the plays were written by clergymen and staged by church
members. The plays had a function that complemented that of sermons and
other forms of exhortation.
3.2 Morality Plays
You only need to properly appreciate the atmosphere that produced the drama
of the English Medieval period to understand why much of the drama of the
era was deeply rooted in religion. Apart from the mystery play which
involved divine and human characters, morality plays also represented
another category in the medieval period in England. Morality plays were
meant to serve the purpose of instructing people. A major feature of morality
plays is the dramatisation of the conflict between the forces of good and evil.
This incidentally does not emerge in Everyman. The other feature of the
morality play that you will readily recognise in the play is the tendency to use
personification allegory. You will observe, for instance, that GOOD
DEEDS< GOODS KNOWLEDGE, STRENGTH and DISCRETION are all
personified in the play.
3.3 Everyman as a Morality Play
Even though Everyman is easily the most popular morality play, it may
interest you to know that it is actually not so representative of this tradition.
Not all morality plays elicit the seriousness that we encounter in the play. It
lacks humour whereas some others accommodate satire and elements of the
comic. There are also speculations as to the relationship between everyman a
Dutch play entitled Elckerlijic which shares the same theme with the play.
The most likely basis of their relationship is that the Dutch play is a
translation of Everyman.
Everyman is, all the same, a morality play. It is primarily intended to
propagate the idea of repentance or penance which the church at this time
held in high regard. The second feature that identifies the play with the
morality tradition is the fact that it effectively uses personification allegory.
The story that is told in the play itself is basically meant to serve a didactic
purpose. It is not necessarily the story of a particular person; it is the story of
all men.
Exercise 1
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1. What are the features of English Medieval drama?
2. To what extent is Everyman a morality play?
3.4 Everyman: A Synopsis
After reading Everyman, what will become clear to you is that the play is
rather straightforward. The story is basically that of a man who is curiously
named Everyman. He is summoned through Death to appear before God to
give an account of his stewardship. He tries in vain to persuade fellowship,
his friend, kindred, his cousin, and goods, his earthly resources, to
accompany him. Good deeds which represent his personal record would
readily go with him but it is weighed down by his sins. This confirms the
depravity of Everyman and the fact that he urgently needs repentance which
should give him a good standing before God.
He is committed by knowledge to confess his sins. He is admonished to put
on the garment of repentance and then assured that he could now go and
appear before God after making his ways right. He dies and the essence of
the play is conveyed by the Doctor who draws attention to the moral of the
play. He draws attention to man’s dependence on God, the fact that everyone
is personally accountable to God. The play ends on the admonition that
everyman should seek to satisfy all the requirements to make heaven.
3.5 Themes in Everyman
By now, it should be possible for you to suggest the central arguments that
run through Everyman. You need to even realise that the allegorical value of
the play is reflected in its thematic preoccupation. The themes that emerge in
the play are, as should be expected, related. They are also meaningful in the
context in which the play was originally performed - the church setting.
Some of the themes are:
Man’s Accountability to God: Perhaps the major theme in the play is that
which explores man’s accountability to God. The summary theme received
by Everyman is that he is accountable to God. Death is the necessary
experience which should bring him to his maker. But he is not eager to die.
He would want the company of his trusted friends. To his shock his friend
and relations desert him. All that he can depend on is his own moral record
which good deeds represent.
The Necessity of Repentance: There is also a related theme about the
necessity of repentance. When Everyman realizes that he is not confident to
appear before God, he discovers his need and is accordingly directed to seek
repentance before dying. While the formal procedure for seeking penance is
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clarified in relative to the play, repentance and the ritual of confession are
seen as inseparable.
Inevitability of Death: There is also enough suggestion in the play that man
cannot turn down the invitation of DEATH who is presented as the divine
agent in this regard. The experience of death, as shown in the play is
everyman that one is often not prepared for. The end can come at any time
for any man and all that one needs is to prepare for it.
Everyman is not prepared for death. This, in a way reveals the condition of
the average human being, for nobody wants to die. But death often comes
when people least expect. In every sense, the experience of Everyman is
suggesting the condition in which the average human being is at the point of
death. The play effectively stresses the fact that death is awaiting everybody.
Ironically, this is one truth most people will not want to accept.
The Vanity of Earthly Pursuits: Equally important is the concern of the
play with the vanity of the pursuit of earthly pleasure and carnal desires. You
will recall that Everyman is left alone at the point of death. He is deserted by
goods which is actually a personification of his earthly possession. The fact
that he cannot rely on this is pointing to the folly of indulging in the quest for
worldly pleasure and bodily passions.
3.6Technique in Everyman
What should have been clear to you in this play is that we can only properly
understand it in the context in which it operates. Everyman is primarily a
morality play and it was meant to serve a purpose. Let us take a look at
certain elements of technique that we find remarkable.
* Allegorical Quality
Perhaps the most striking feature of this play is the fact that it is allegorical.
This simply means that we can only understand it if we first realize that it is
operating at two levels of meaning. The literal meaning of the play, for
instance, will present it as the story of Everyman, the character that we
encounter in the play. What cannot be denied, however, is the fact that the
story of Everyman is actually the story of all men. The importance of the
play, therefore, transcends the experience of an individual named Everyman.
The naming of the central character in the play is itself a clear pointer to this
fact. The use of allegory is appropriate for the purpose of the church that
used the play for the propagation of its teaching.
* Characterisation
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Closely related to allegorical value of the play is the use made of allegorical
characterisation. You will observe that ht characters like GOOD,
DISCIRECTION, KNOWLEDGE, GOOD DEEDS and BEAUTY are not
human being. This was certainly effective in achieving the purpose of
creating the play. Apart from the fact that the play uses allegorical
personification, it also uses stock characters. The characters are simply
meant to embody qualities and attributes. The characters are not individuals
but embodiments of fixed qualities. This is always a feature of morality
plays.
* Didactic Value
By suggesting that Everyman has didactic value we simply mean that the
play is primarily meant to instruct. Everyman points to this. The themes of
the play are carefully selected and they are the main focus of the play. Care
is also taken to expound the ideas it expresses so that the message will be
driven home. You need to consider some structural features of the play to
appreciate this. At the beginning of the play and at the end the essence of the
play is stated. MESSENGER, in introducing the play, states that the play is to
teach the audience about the need to live a godly life. DOCTOR also appears
at the end of the play to summarise the play and the lesson it teaches.
* Simple Plot
The plot of Everyman is simple and straightforward. This is typical of the
plot of morality plays. All that matters is the message they express. Care is
not taken to bring in anything that is irrelevant. This is why it is intricate.
There are also no sub-plots. The element of artistry becomes insignificant so
long as the message is effectively delivered.
* Biblical Allusion
You must have also observed that the play makes extensive use of biblical
allusion. This should not be strange. In the first place, the play was
produced and presented in the Church setting. Christian doctrines of
repentance, destructive nature of sin and the principle of individual
accountability to God are the main biblical ideas that recur in the play. In
sum, all the elements of technique employed in the play contribute to its
success and blend in making it an effective morality play.
Exercise 11
Examine the technique in Everyman.
4.0 Conclusion
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You may have wondered why Everyman is anonymous. This should not
surprise you. The creation of the play was not meant to project the creative
ability of the writer. The play was created to propagate Christian values.
The ideas it expresses are also not necessarily original to an individual. They
are all derived from the Bible and common Christian practices like
confession and penance.
5.0 Summary
Everyman gives us an insight into how drama can be used to advance a
particular cause. It suggests that drama can lend itself to a variety of uses.
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
Critically examine any FOUR thematic issues explored in Everyman, paying
close attention to the text.
7.0 Further Reading
Trapp, J.B. Medieval English Literature London: Oxford University Press,
1973.
UNIT 16
Introducing Drama: Shakespeare’s
The Tempest
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Table of Content
1.0
2.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
The New World in Renaissance English Literature
William Shakespeare’s The Tempest: A Synopsis
Themes of the play
Technique in The Tempest
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor Marked Assignment
Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
This unit brings us to the work of the great playwright Williams Shakespeare.
The work of Shakespeare commands too much respect and is widely read
because it is believed to have timeless relevance. The play we are studying is
one of the very last plays that Shakespeare wrote. It is considered unique both
in terms of raises and the form of the play. The Tempest is generally seen as a
romantic comedy as it is basically considered to be a tore play.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
· Interpret Shakespeare’s The Tempest as a literary work;
· Discuss the thematic interests, technique and structure of the
play
3.1 The New World in Renaissances English Literature
You need to know about the background to the inviting of The Tempest in
order to be able to appreciate some of the issue that is raised in it. One fact
that is clear is that invites are products of their age. Shakespeare’s is not an
exception. He came under the influences of some ideas that were prevalent in
his days.
The Renaissance period was the era in which new lands were being
discovered. Described as the New world, so much interest was generated
about there new lands and their intribitants. Writers also showed interest in
the New World. Expectedly, the little that they knew about these lands was
augmented by their own imagination. What this implies is that, what the
writers wrote about the New World and its people cannot be taken seriously.
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The usual European prejudice about other peoples is reflected in the way the
peoples of the New World are represented in The Tempest. This is the way to
understand the relationship between Prospero, the archetypal colonizer and
Calibian, the displaced native. To discountenances the centrality of this
encounter to the play is to embark on a deliberate misreading.
.
While it is true that certain sources are speculated to have contributed to the
making of the play, there is enough indication that The Tempest is one of the
very few plays that can be described as largely a product of Shakespeare’s
imagination.
3.2 The Tempest: A Synopsis
The story of The Tempest is a fairly straight forward one. At the centre of the
story is prospero, the Duke of Milan. He is displaced by Antonio, his brother
due to his undue interest in exploring magic books and the search for esoteric
knowledge. He is consequently put on a rotten ship along with his daughter,
Miranda. Their journey turns out to the end at an island, one that is not
named, but which is inhabited by a supposed semi-human being, Caliban.
Caliban is described as the product of a union between Sycorax, a witch and a
demonic being. Caliban himself has taken Ariel, a spirit hostage. Ariel
fortunately benefits from Prospero’s benevolence as he sets him free.
All that happened up till this point belongs only to the past. The play itself
begins twelve year later. Prospero engineers a Shipwreck in which king
Alonso of Naples, Sebastian, Alonso’s son, Ferdinand, Gonzalo and
Prospero’s brother involves, Antonio. It turns out that the people find
themselves on the same island and with Prospero. But Ferdinand who is on
another part of the island, separated from the others, and feels that he is the
only survivor of the shipwreck.
His meeting with Miranda inspires his actually responsible for engineering
the meeting with Miranda inspires his interest in her engineering the meeting
between the two of them. Miranda pretends not to know anything about the
whole development and rather detains Ferdinand on the grounds of being on
espionage, and compels him to work as punishment for him.
In another part of the island, Sebastian and Antonio plot to kill Antonio and
Gonzalo. Caliban also plots to get Stephano and Trinculo to murder Prospero.
Things happen fast. Ferdinand is released, and is offered Miranda. Prospero
drives away Caliban, Stephano and Trinculo who are plotting to murder him
and at the same time brings Alonso and his entourage to his cell. Prospero
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there and then pardons his brother Antonio, and makes him voluntarily return
his kingdom.
He also offers Ferdinand to his father, Alonso. The discovery that the ship
crews are safe is cheering prospero renounces his magical powers, sets Ariel
free, and gets ready to leave for his kingdom. Ferdinand and Miranda also set
out, to formally contract their marriage, while Caliban is left to regain his
island. What will interest you is that all that takes place in the play lasts only
three hours.
3.3 Themes of the Play
What you are likely to discover in your reading of The Tempest is that it is
one play they has been subjected to play that interpretations. This confirms
the fact that it lends itself to a variety of interpretations.
Let us examine a few of the interpretations.
(a) Allegory of the Coloniser / Colonised Relationship.
The most radical interpretation of The Tempest is the one that sees it
as dramatising the colonial experience. This reading sees the
relationship between Prospero and Caliban as central to any serious
appraisal of the work. The two characters are taken as representing
the two parties to the colonial engagement. In this sense, Caliban will
then be the demonised native who is unfairly displaced from the land
of his birth by prospero who represents the intruding colonial power.
Caliban Native Island will then be the typical New World and he is
the representative of the inhabitants. All that Prospero ways about him
represents him as sub-human and unrefined.
This is consistent work the out look of the European colonisers on
their often unwilling colonial subjects. Caliban’s insistence on taking
over his island can them be need as a form of nationalist act and a
natural reaction to his colonial subjugation. Prosper, the coloniser, in
the spirit of the arrogant taken the fact of the natural right to taken
over the island for granted.
(b) Nature Version Nurture
The relationship between prospero and Caliban can also be seen as in
terms of the opposition between Nature and Art. The conflict is
essentially between the World of Prospero’s art and Caliban’s nature.
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To this extent, the play qualifies as a pastoral drama ____ one that is
concerned with the confrontation between Nature and Art. Caliban is
then the natural man against whom Prospero, the cultured man, is
measured. Prospero’s magic becomes his facility tame nature.
(c) Learning
Learning or education is the other major theme which you can
discover in the play. Prospero’s inordinate guest for knowledge led to
the loss of his dukedom. In this sense, he is, by analogy, Adam,
forfeiting his domain due to excessive search for knowledge. But his
desire contrasts with the state of the supposedly uneducable Caliban.
The main difference between prospero and Caliban will then be the
contrasts between the men who have not been subjected to the
refining process of education. (Which could actualise his potentials)
and the man whose abilities are sealed up in their original form.
Miranda’s chastity and civility are also products of careful
upbringing. The best that can be said about Caliban is that he is a
product of an ungodly ancestor. This is taken an explaining his lack
of virtual, beauty and nobility.
Exercise I
Critically examine the thematic interests of Shakespeare’s The Tempest.
3.4 Technique in The Tempest
We have already limited at the fact that The Tempest occupies an important
place in Shakespeare’s corpus. It is not only become of the concerns of the
play but because of its form and technical qualities. We shall examine a few
of these:
· Dramatic form
It is interesting that various suggestions have been made as to the
proper way to describe The Tempest as a play. It has variously been
seen as a pastoral comedy, a romantic comedy and a tragicomedy.
This is probably an indication that the play defies easy classification.
The various critical responses it has elicited in this regard may then be
seen as based on the various perspectives it has been seen.
· Structure
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One feature of the play that critics have unanimously commented
upon is its structure. It is surprising that Shakespeare decided to adopt
the three unities in this play which was written at the end of his
career. The action of the play does not last more than three hours. The
playwright ensures that the unities of places, action and time are
observed. All the same actions taken placed on the same island
simultaneously at the same time. The events of the past are effectively
connected to the play proper through the use of exposition. The use of
magic and spirits like Ariel also quickens the action.
The effect is that, action in the play is one of the most economically
constructed by Shakespeare. In spite of the multiplicity of plots.
· Characterisation
Characters, in the play fall into two groups - human beings and spirits.
Prospero, Caliban, Miranda and Ariel are the major characters. The
use of contrast however establishes Caliban place him in opposition to
all other characters. He is the exact opposite of what all other are. If
Prospero is the refined, all- wise and philosophical man, Caliban is
the ugly, criminal and shameless son of a witch. Miranda’s innocence
and tenderness also invites comparison with Caliban’s depravity and
humble as violence.
Ariel is also submissiveness and humility as against Caliban’s
rebelliousness. The present of the mirror character facilitates the
relaxation of the action of the play. But prospero is made to tower
above all. His use of magic makes it possible for him to manipulate
people and events. He is in turn seen as large – hearted and all –
powerful.
* Language
Many of the scenes in The Tempest are written in prose. Characters
like the Boatswain, Stephano and Trinculo use prose. It is employed
for unimportant discussions like jesting. Blank verse is used by the
more distinguished characters - Prospero, Alonzo and (Gonzalo.The
lovers also use it exclusively. Caliban employs a form of metric
prose.
Exercise 1
Comment on characterization in The Tempest.
4.0 Conclusion
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The Tempest is a remarkable play. Been seen as lending it uses rightly been
seen as lending itself to various interpretations. It also succeeds as drama
because the playwright employs appropriate techniques. You may also
observe that the use of masque enhances the harmonious atmosphere in the
play. The ideas of The Tempest also functions as a facilitator of the action of
the play.
5.0 Summary
The Tempest remains a remarkable play in the entire corpus of Shakespeare
because of its concern and form. It shows the playwright at his imaginative
best.
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
Comment on the themes of The Tempest.
7.0 Further Reading
Danulva, A. O. Dramatic Literature: A Source Book . Ibadan: Sam Bookman,
1997.
UNIT 17
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Textual Analysis of Drama: Ola Rotimi’s
The Gods Are Not to Blame
Table of Content
1.0
2.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
A Synopsis of the play
Themes of the Play
Dramatic Techniques and Devices
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor Marked Assignment
Further Reading and References
1.0 Introduction
In our discussion of tragedy as a dramatic form, we emphasised its Greek
origin. The fact that reference was not made to the existence of the tradition
in Africa must tell you something about the cultural element in the
production of drama. But while it is not common to hear discussions about
the African tradition of tragedy, we cannot deny the fact that some playwright
have made efforts to transplant plays that operate within other socio-cultural
environments. Wole Soyinka’s The Bacchae of Euripides and Ola Rotimi’s
The God’s Are Not to blame which are adaptations of Euripides’ The
Bacchae, Sophodes’ King Oedipus respectively, are examples of plats that
are based on classical plays. The adaptation of plays, which involve,
reworking an original play unto a new play to make for cultural relevance in
a different environment, he showed the genius of African dramatists. Ola
Rotimi’s The Gods Are Not to Blame is particularly significant because it
impressively transforms the original Greeks tragedy, into a setting in the
Yoruba culture and philosophy, to in addition to changing its setting and
peopling it with characters from the same environment. The effect is a play
which exhibits of creativity. What you then encounter is a play that is
modelled on the Greek tradition of tragedy.
2.0 Objective
At the end of this unit, you should be able to
· Analyse The Gods Are Not to blame;
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· Discuss the themes and techniques of the play.
3.1 A Synopsis of The Play
The outbreak of pestilence in Kutuje forces people to besiege the palace of
the king for a solution. King Odewale counsels them to use herbs. As the
problem defies all solutions, Aderopo is despatched to Ifa Oracle for a
solution. He comes back with the message that the land is under a curse and
that the agony of the people would remain if it is not taken away. The curse
in question is linked with the former King, King Adetusa. Aderopo who is
made to bring the great diviner – medicineman, Baba Fakunle.
The latter declares that a murder is the cause of the problem and that so long
as the murderer lives Kutuje, the problem would remain. Odewale is angry
because the diviner would not disclose the identity of the murderer in
question. He gets angry and accuses Baba Fakunle of collaborating with his
chiefs to unseat him. The suspicion is extended to Aderopo. Who is accused
of plotting to depose the king? As the crisis deepens and the King swears not
to see Aderopo again. Meanwhile, Baba Fakunle has forced to declare king
Odewale the murderer in anger.
Alaka, an Ijekun man and an old associate of Odewale, visits with the
intention to inform him of the death of Ogundele, his ‘father’. The meeting
provokes mutual reflection, and the disclosure or the reason for Odewale’s
fleeing of Ijekun land leads to further revelations.
He recollects killing a man “where three paths meet” near Ede. This turns out
to be the very place where king Adetusa is believed to have been killed.
Gbonka, the body guard of the slain ging is invited and he confirms the
person killed was king Adetusa. At the same time, Odewale gets to the know
that Ogundele, the hunter and his wife Mobike, are not his own parents. This
finally leads to the shocking discovery that Odewale is indeed the son of
Ojuola and king Adetusa who is said to be accussed, and that he would kill
his father and marry his mother. Gbonka, ironically is the one responsible for
saving the life of the child who is to have been killed.
But his refusal to kill the child as instructed by the Ogun priest has made the
curse to run as predicted. On realizing this, Ojuola falls down and then
moves into the room to stab herself to death. Odewale is also weighed self –
discovery. He gouges out his own eyes and walks away into excide with his
children.
3.2 Themes of the Play
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The Irreversibility of fate
The main concern of the play is with the ideas of fate as understood by the
Yoruba the idea of destiny is clarified in the experience of Odewale.
Odewale‘s desire to escape the fulfilment of the abominable decree of the
gods upon his life by fleeing Ijekun turns out to be a step towards ensuring its
fulfilment. Odewale becomes helpless and ends his journey disastrously. The
vindicetion of the gods in the title of the play may actually point to the fact
that the attempt of man to defy their injunction must be taken as the cause
tragedy of Odewale;s. In this case, Gbonka must be held responsible for ever
thinking he could go against the will of the gods who have pronounced a
verdict on Odewale. Obviously, Odewale could not have done anything to
escape the curse. The only cure for his death is that he should not live.
Ethnic Consciousness
There is also a basis for exploring the issues related to ethnicity in the play as
catalysing the tegic experience of Odewale. In the first place, he confesses
that his killing a man at a place “where three paths meet” near Ede is a way
of defending a fellow Ijekun man.
Moreover, he becomes suspicious of his chiefs, Aderopo and Baba Fakunle,
on the basis that they might be conspiring against him because he is not an
indigene of Kutuje, so as to remove him as king. The same anger that inspires
him to kill his own father unknowing is the drive for his suspicions. The
problem of ethnicity they emerged here has also been further extended to the
Nigerian experience .The play was first produced in 1969 during the Nigerian
civil war. In the context of the Nigerian crisis, a basis was found to link the
Nigerian crisis to the ethnic tension and suspicion within the Nigerian shete
rather than the intervention of the world powers that showed interest in the
war.
Exercise 1
Who should take the blame for Odewale’s tragic experience?
3.3 Dramatic Techniques and Devices
Dramatic form
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The play, as earlier suggested, is a tragedy. As an adaptation of a Greek
tragedy, you should not be surprised that it does not adhere strictly to the
classical convention. For instance, it honours the specification with repaid to
the unity of plot and action, as well as the preference for the tragic character
that is distinguished. The feeling of fear and pity are also elicited by the
reversal of fortune that Odewale experiences.
Structure
The plot of the play has a linear structure. But a prosper understanding of the
play is impossible if the Prologue with which it begins is not taken into
consideration. As it provides the background information needed to
appreciate the history of the royal house of Kutuje. The past is apparently
responsible for the present.
Narration
The use of the narrator enables the audiences to be informed about such an
important event as the birth of Odewale in the Prologue. It is also at this point
that the prophecy about the fate of Odewale is declared.
Language
It is remarkable that even though the English language is employed in the
play effort is made to translate Yoruba proverbs and integrated Yoruba
expressions. Good use is also made of the translations of Yoruba expressions.
Mime
The actors in the Prologue are mimed. These include the birth of Odewale,
the consultation of the Oracle and the intervention of Odewale following,
the attach of Kutuje by the people of Ikolu.
Flash back
The playwright brings the fight between Odewale and the old man into the
play to illuminate our understanding and thereby confirm the incident.
Dramatic Irony
The technique features regularly in the play. For instance, you will recall that
when Baba Fekunle cells Odewale “bed sharer” he immediately knows that it
describes Odewale’s condition. This also applies the declaration that he is the
murderer. Odewale only come to appreciate this later.
Dance and Music
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Dance and music are employed at various times in the play as dramatic
elements. The births in the play and the coronation of Odewale are marked
with singing and dancing.
Characterisation
King Odewale, Ojuola, Aderopo, Lawale, Baba Fekunle and Gbonka play
important roles in the play. Each, in addition to the attributes we may
associate with them, can be identified with an important aspect of the
Odewale tragedy, either in the same of facilitating or revelling it. Towns
people play the role of the Chorus in Greek drama, most of the time
expressing their views in songs
Exercise II
Briefly comment on the use of flashback, mime, music and dance and
dramatic irony in The Gods Are not to Blame
4.0 Conclusion
The Gods Are Not to blame succeeds as a play. In fact it is best regarded as
an inventive adaptation. This is why it can compete favourably with other
plays that make no claim to the kind of affinity it has with a Greek Play. The
fact that the playwright transforms the ideas, issues and the cultural situation
in the original play in his adaptation make it culturally relevant is proof that
an adaptation can almost look like an original play. The world of the play is
recognisably African and the characters project an outlook that is
unmistakably Yoruba.
5.0 Summary
Much of the reputation of Ola Rotimi as a playwright rests on the impact that
this play has made. Even though he has written other plays, The Gods Are
Not to Blame is likely to be the one that most Nigerians will remember this
playwright for long after his death.
6.0 Tutor marked assignment
What do you consider the main thematic concerns of Ola Rotimi’s The Gods
Are Not to Blame?
7.0 Further Reading and References
Etherton, Michael. The Development of African Drama. London:
Hutdunson University Press, 1982.
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(** Read Chapter 3)
Rotimi , Ola. The Gods Are Not to Blame London: Oxford University
Press, 1971.
UNIT 18
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Texture Analysis of Drama:
Niyi Osundare’s The State Visit
Table of Content
1.0
2.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Objectives
Niyi Osundare: A Biographical Sketch
The State Visit: A Synopsis
Thematic Issues in The State Visit
Dramatic Introduction
Technique and Devices
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor marked Assignment
Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
Much of modern writing in Africa is based on the African experience. This is
what you will soon discover as you interact more infinitely contemporary
African literature. The African historical experience has provided the raw
material for the literary exploration of many writers. Beginning with the
destructive impact of the colonial struggle for independence, to the
disappointing performance of the African leaders after independence, the
African problem has provided the subject matter for the average writer. This
is the more so because Africans generally feel that whatever they write
should have some influence on or relevance to their immediate environment.
This explains why there is a tendency for the leaders to critically assess the
political leaders and expose their faults and excesses. This interest African
writer has often brought them into conflict with the political leaders who
could either be civilians or soldiers.
Writers that are committed to social criticism feel it is a form of service to the
society. For then, it is a way of acting as the voice of the masses and the
many people who are unjustly oppressed by the erring political clan. This is
the sense in which you should try to read the play that we are studying in thin
unit, Niyi Osundare’s The State Visit.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
· analyse Osundare’s The State Visit as a political satire
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· relate the technique the play adopts with its interests
3.1 Niyi Osundare: A Biographical Sketch
Niyi Osundare is a leading African writer who has been given a lot of
recognition internationally. Born in Ikere Ekiti in Ekiti State, Nigeria in 1937,
he was educated at the universities of Ibadan, Leeds and York, in Toronto,
Canada. He is best known as a poet. Osundare has published more than ten
collections of poems and four plays. He is a professor of English at the
University of Ibadan and has been a dominant figure in contemporary
Anglophone African writing. His work is profoundly concerned with the
plight of the common people, the exercise of unseen less African leaders and
the urgency of resisting them. His poems and plays express the same
interests. Satire is his favourite mode for exploring the relationship between
rulers and the ruled in African. He also draws freely on the artistic traditions
of his immediate cultural group, the Yoruba in his work.
3.2 The State Visit A Synopsis
All the events in the play surround preparations for a state visit. The play
opens with the Narrator embarking on an extensive discussion of the rot and
madness men that characterise the government machinery in Yakeland. The
meeting of the state cabinet they begin with the head of state or Head,
presiding. The subject of the discussion is the impending visit of the head of
Wilama, to a neighbouring country and the preparation to accord him a
befitting reception.
The cabinet meeting itself exposes the Head and his ministers as unserious
minds, for all that they talk about is how to divert public funds mind to
provide essential services to the state visit. Meanwhile, the land is
experiencing drought, decline in national earnings and the discontent of the
populace. It is decided that the six hundred million Naira for the maize
project be diverted to planning the state visit against the counsel of the
Finance minister, the only voice of reason in he cabinet.
We later encounter the beggars in front of a supermarket, Sule, Etim, Obi and
Abeke. The all recount their takes of woe, all pointing to the fact that they are
victim of the insensitivity of the society to the plight of the common people.
Order is later given that they are cleaned from the streets in preparation for
the visit.
When the cabinet meeting resumes, the uncooperative finance minister has
been replaced. Reports are also taken as to the preparation for the visit. The
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cabinet is assured of the co-operation of the ‘Daily Gist’ that has been paid to
ensure good media coverage and the opposition of The Telling Tempo
A few people appear before the council. First is the service Professor who is
gladly serving as the speech writer of the Head of State. Then come the
Medal smith, who is mandated to decorate the ceremonial coat of the Head.
After him comes the Paints who turns out to be confrontational, insisting on
not working for or collaborating with a tyrannical government. He affirms his
allegiance to truth he is ordered to be taken out.
Colonel, who is in charge of traffic, is the next to appear. He justifies their
preference for instant punishment for lawless motorists and other road users
as opposed to the alternative of trying them according to the law.
The next act presents a rally of workers and students where they narrate their
woes and affirm their opposition to the senseless arrangement for the state
visit of the Head of William. As usual their gathering is declared unlawful
and dispersed by the police.
The narrator then appears again to thank the audience and to draw their
attention to the times that are raised in the play. He concludes that the drama
of opposition to the bad government of the land has just started. The play
ends on this note.
Exercise I
Attempt a summary of the plot of the state Visit
3.3 Thematic Issues in The State Visit
The State Visit is a satirical work which critically exposes the inadequacies
of African military dictators. Even though it is set in Yankeland which is also
referred to as “the land of two rivers” a veiled reference to Nigerian are
issues that the play engages are generally applicable to many African states.
The issues that are raised in the play are therefore best understood in this
sense. The major thematic concerns of the play are as follow:
Visionless Leadership
The state Visit exposes the lack of vision of the leadership of Yankeland. A
situation in which the state Cabinet is busy deliberating on how to ensure that
a visiting president is well – received when their land is experiencing a
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drought indicates that they lack direction. The Head of state himself has no
plan for his people. Government, for the inept leaders is an opportunity to
loot the treasury, violate the rights of the people and encourage sycophancy
and vanity. The fact that the leadership of Yankeland would not mind
diverting money meant to ensure food security in Yankeland is plan a
reception for a visiting president confirms their folly and insensitivity to the
plight of their people.
Corruption, Greed and Ineffiency
Not only are the leaders of Yankeland shown as visionless, their
incompetence, corruption and Greed contributing to their failure. The
impression that we are given in the play is that the Head who has been in
power for thirty years, knows nothing about the demands of leadership and
feels he can empty the treasury and pay journalists and others who will sing
praise. This is the reason that the first minister of finance is sacked.
Suppression of Opposition and Dissent
There is also the related theme of intolerance of opposition in the play. You
will recall that only those that support the government of Yankeland are
tolerated. All these that summon the courage to voice their opposite are
victimised as they are seen as a threat to the security of the state. Ironically
the security of Yankeland in this sense simply means the security of the
leadership. Painter, for instance, is hated for during to express his opposition
to the Head of state and his administration. The rally organised by the
students and workers is also dispersed by the agents simply see the
suppression of dissent against the government as their only. They kill arrest
and intimidate the helpless masses.
The Necessity of Resistance
There is one other theme in this play which you should not overlook. It
concerns the necessity of resisting the visionless, intolerant and corrupt
leadership of African states. This is a theme that runs through the entire play.
In fact the play reads as an urgent call to action. From the insight that the
Narrator gives into the situation in Yankeland, through the principled stance
of the fist finance minister and the courage of the painter to the utterance and
solidarity of Worker, Old man, Student and the beggars who confront the
junta and its agents, the play promotes purposeful solidarity and resistance to
oppression.
3.4 Dramatic Technique and Devices
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Satirical Essence
The State Visit is essentially a satire. You will observe from the beginning of
the play that its intention is not hidden. It sets out to expose the excesses and
faults of modern African leaders. There is a sense in which the narrator
speaks for he playwright. His comments influence the judgement of the
reader who is already given the impression that all that the play does is
dramatise the madness that he has already been told about. The play is a
biting satire which is unsparing in the manner that it condemns contemporary
African leaders. It elicits laughter while also provoking serious thought about
the issue that are raised.
Plot
The play has a linear plot. All the events in the play surround the preparation
to receive the Head of Wilama. The focus of the play shifts from the cabinet
meeting to the beggars and mores back to another cabinet meeting. From this
point, the focus is now on the demonstration organised by students and
workers. The beginning of the play comes again to address the audience of
the end. What all the scenes is the impending state visit. It is the subject of
discussion among the beggars and the reason for the demonstration. The
events are likely to have lasted a fed day, even though the time span is not
suggested.
Narrator
The Narrator, as we have already observed, plays an important role in the
plays. He draws attention to the essence of the play. He suggests that the play
is intended to confirm that entire he has said about the state of Yanke. At the
end of the ply again he comes to comment on the play, drawing attention to
the demonstration. He suggests that the land will witness a change because of
the resolve of the people. He is very optimistic about the change that he
anticipates.
Humour
Humour is vehicle for satire in the play. This emerges in particular at the
Cabinet meetings, where the issues that are to be satirised, are apparent to the
utterances of the Head, of the Minister of External Affairs, and the Minister
of Agriculture. The humour at times becomes so intense that it almost
degenerates it’s the type we associate with low comedy.
Characterisation
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The characters in the play represent different strata in the society. They may
be broadly categorised unto two the powerful and the oppressed. The
difference is apparent in the social status of the people. But there are also
members of the oppressed group that serve as agents of the ruling elite.
Police men fall into this category. The Head of State and his cabinet
constitute the powerful in society.
Songs
The songs in this play help to reinforce its message. The songs are meant to
sensitise the common people and mobilise them for powerful action some of
the songs are also meant to achieve the satirized purpose. It should also be
noted that some of the songs are written in Yoruba. The demonstrators use
songs that explain their defiance and resolve to fight the oppressive regime.
Language
The playwright employs simple but effective language. He uses a lot of
Yoruba proverbs and expressions, most of while are translated. Sentences are
punctuated with Yoruba expression. The Narrator uses Yoruba interjections,
songs and greetings. The second time he appears, he greets the audience:
“E kuu joko oo”(p.64) and includes on the note: “Eku le o” (p.64). These
greeting are, incidentally, not easy to translate into English.
Contrast
Contrast s a favourite strategy Osundare uses. He, for instance, establishes
the different conditions of the rulers and the ruled in Yanke, by shifting the
scene of the play from the Cabinet meeting, to the community of beggars.
While the ministers are deliberating on how to waste the resources of the
nation, the beggars are lamenting their condition and thinking of how to
survive. The creation of the characters that are hypocritical and service (like
Professor) and those that are principled (like Painter) and the sacked minister
of finance are intended to establish the fact that the society is not completely
hopeless.
Exercise II
Discuss the thematic interests of Niyi Osundare: The State Visit
4.0 Conclusion
The writing of this play was inspired by the Nigerian exposure to military
dictatorship. This probably explains why there is reference to certain events
drawn from the Nigeria experience. But to properly appreciate the plays, you
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should recognise a problem that most African countries share: The leadership
problem which is always at its worst under the military dictators. Ironically,
the sincere people are those that suffer under bad leaders.
5.0 Summary
A play like The State Visit is not just to entertain. It is to enlighten and
sensitise. This makes it a good example of a committed work, that is, a work
that promotes a cause.
6.0 Turtor marked Assignment
“Osundare’s The State Visit is a striking critique of the African condition.”
Discuss this critical observation with close reference to the text.
7.0 Further Reading and Reference
Osundare, Niyi The State Visit Ibadan
Kraft books Limited, 2002.
UNIT 19
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Textual Analyses of Drama:
Leroi Janes’ Dutchman
Table of Content
1.0
2.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
African American History and Literature
Leroi Jones: A Biographical Sketch
Dutchman: A Synopsis
Interpreting the Play
Symbolism in Dutchman
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor Marked Assignment
Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
All the plays you have studied so far would have givens you some
understanding about the various conditions and situations that can inspire a
playwright to create a play. In a sense, a drama most of the time tries to
imitate life. This in a sense explains why we tend to be find of plays that
explore experiences that we are familiar with. Your response to The State
Visit that you just studied in Unit 18 would definitely reflect this. The play
probably tells you about something you already know and therefore strikes
you as true. What this also implies is that you need to gain some insight unto
the world behind any other work that is concerned about what you have little
or no knowledge about. In Dutchman, we may need to find out a little about
the history of African – Americans so as to appreciate its interest.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
· Relate Leroi Jones’ Dutchman to the African-American
experience;
· Discuss the use of symbolism and mythology in relation to the
success of the play.
3.1 African-American History and Literature
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African Americans who are also known as Black Americans, are people of
African descent in America. Their grandparents were taken to America as
slaves over a period of time. These slaves worked on plantations and
experienced serious degradation. The white owners of the plantations
regarded their slaves as properties and r therefore always gave them names
that they liked. But anytime the slaves regained their freedom, they renamed
themselves. Even though the plantations were not a place anyone would
desire to be, they provided the Black people an opportunity to create their
own distinctive cultural practise. The blues and the Negro spirituals
flourished on the plantations. These have since become important cultural
practises of the people.
Even though the African Americans have been integrated into the Americas
as citizens, the relationship between white and black people is often defined
in terms of the original status of the black people in America. This is what
becomes clear in Dutchman certain factors have influenced the way the
Blacks are seen. The white people tend to have a fixed idea as to what the
identity of the average black person is based should be is on the stereotypical
assumptions they here formed about them. For instance, they feel that as
descendants of slaves, they all beer names a set of names.
They also see the black men are virile. This is why the typical white woman
would appreciate the sexuality of the lack man. The blacks are also believed
to be fond of such crimes as rape. Moreover, the educated black people tend
to seek acceptance among the white people because there education naturally
taken them out of their own community. This is evident in their dressing.
They are who see them as Uncle Tom, that is, the servile black man who
would do everything to find the favour of the white. These myths are all
rooted in the history of the relationship between the white and the black
Americans. It is not therefore a surprise that African writing draws on it. It is
almost impossible for you to properly appreciate the literature and theatrical
traditions of the black community in America without gaining some insight
into their history and experience. This is what you will discover in your
reading of Dutchman by Leroi Jones. Meanwhile, let us take c look at the life
and commitment of the playwright himself.
3.2 Leroi Jones: A Biographical Sketch
Born in 1934 in Newark New Jersey, Everett Leroi Jones had his early
education at Newark. He attended Rutgers University on scholarship from
1951 and transferred to Howard University in 1952, graduating in 1954 with
the Bachelor of Arts degree. He later served briefly in the United state Air
Force. He joined the Beat, a generation of poet and married his first wife,
Hattie Cohen in 1958. Leroi founded and edited literary magazines and
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completed his first major play, the toilet the best – known of his dramatist,
poet and theorist of black culture. Dutchman, the best – known of his plays
was produced, was produced in 1964.
3.3 Dutchman: A Synopsis
Dutchman is important not because it is long or full of action but because
everything about it is important. In actual fact, you would have discovered
that it is just a one-act play. In addition, it has just two characters, a white
lady named Lula and Clay, a young Black man. Lula is thirty years old while
Clay is only twenty. They meet in an underground train and try to chat.
Their interaction becomes significant because of its racial and gender
implications. Lula makes the first move and this encourages Clay to also be
friendly. She matches her expression of interest in interacting with Clay with
the offer of an apple. But it becomes clear that Lula’s interaction is informed
by all that she knows about Clay and therefore determined by the fact that he
is a member of a racial category. This is why his own individual identity will
not matter.
Lula taunts Clay about his sexuality as a typical black man. She also
suggests that he is a well-known type, being middle – level Blackman, those
that are servile and pretending to be different. This suggests that Clay does
not have the potential to spring any surprise. She goes ahead to misrepresent
the black culture by saying terrible things about the plantation, blues and so
on. This angers Clay and prompts him to take up the challenge of educating
her. He becomes so firm and resolute and gets rid of the veil of the servile
middle class black, insulting and indicting Lula and all that she represents.
When Lula sees that Clay is becoming uncontrollable she stabs him.
Meanwhile, she instructs that his body be thrown out of the train at the next
stop. This instruction is carried out. But another young Blackman of about
Clay’s age enters the train. Lula takes a look at him too.
3.4 Interpreting the Play
You will remember that we have already observed that this play is unique. It
is not like many of those you have read. Ironically, it has so many
suggestions in spite of its length. Many themes have been identified in
relation to the play.
The play may be read as dramatising the revolutionary potential of the middle
class black. Clay is the representative of this category. He is young and
educated. He is also dressed in a three-piece suit, an indication that he is
unsparing to the values of the white. Ordinarily, Clay is supposed to be an
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‘Uncle Tom’ figure who is not likely to be violent. These assumptions
inform the attitude of Lula. As far as Lula is concerned she can always
deal with the servile black middle class. But Clay’s sudden revolutionary
transformation becomes shocking. Not only is he proving that Lula is wrong
in fixing the identity but that he is capable of becoming violent in a bid to
assert his hidden identity. So long as Clay manifests this trace he has proved
Lula and the race she represents, the liberal white wrong.
After Clay’s tirade, all that Lula could say is “I’ve heard enough” (p.37). In
sum, Dutchman is a remarkable work which enables Clay to break the
stereotypical image that white America has created about him. This becomes
a threat to Lula and she is forced to do what the white would always do to
people like him. But in eliminating Clay, Lula finds ready assistance in the
collaboration of the unnamed accomplices who help her get rid of Clay’s
corpse.
3.5 Symbolism in Dutchman
Dutchman is known to be a play that relies heavily on symbolism. The many
symbols in the play can deepen your understanding of its concerns. In fact,
the playwright seems to suggest this when he says that the “subway” is
“heaped in modern myth (p.3). Some of the symbolism elements in the play
deserve our consideration.
Dutchman
The name of the play has been found to be connected to the African
American historical experience. Dutchman is believed to have been the name
of the first ship to take slaves from Africa to America. The choice of
Dutchman for the title of the play is therefore symbolic, in the sense that it
suggests that the play itself can only be understood in the context of the
history of the Black people in America.
The Underground Train
The underground train itself acquires some symbolic value in the light of the
African American experience. It can be likened to the underground trains
that helped some slaves to escape to the North. This may be a way of
anticipating the liberating confrontation of Clay with Lula in the train.
Clay
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Clay may be taken as a symbolic figure at different levels. He is on the
surface a representative of his race in his encounter with Lula. He also
represents Black America while Lula represents the American establishment.
At another level, Clay is a representative of the Black middle class and its
inclination that have been united at? Prominent among these is the Uncle
Tom factor. Again, the Clay that is offered the apple is the American
“Adam” who is tempted so as to forfeit what rightly belongs to him. The
object of Lula’s desire in the temptation is Clay’s sexuality.
Lula
Lula is the typical white liberal who makes a claim to accommodation in
relating with the black. She is also the tempress, the “Eve” that offers the
apple – an invitation to a sexual relationship. She is shocked to discover the
hidden revolutionary capacity of Clay.
Killing of Clay
The killing of clay represents the logical alternative for the liberal white in
the face of the shocking discovery that Clay’s true nature has, after all, not
been grasped. This itself suggests that the so-called liberal white are not
liberal. The killing of Clay is a collective act which Lula naturally has to
initiate. It is a routine which the young black that enters the train after Clay
may also experience.
In all, the symbolic elements in the play reinforce the idea that the play’s
success depends a lot on the use of mythology which is rooted in the history
of the black people and the relationship between them and the white.
4.0 Conclusion
Dutchman is a play that demonstrates that drama and theatre can make use of
resources that are not necessarily verbal. It is also evident from the play that
it has a lot to say even though it does not have more than one Act.
5.0 Summary
Dutchman is the product of the revolutionary theatre of Leroi Jones. It is
complex and meaningful only in the context of the African - American
experience.
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
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Write an essay on the use of symbolism in Dutchman.
7.0 Further Reading
Abodunrin, Femi. Blackness – Culture, Ideology Halics and Discourse.
Bayreuth : Bayreuth African Studies, 1996.
Jones, Leroi. Dutchman London: Faber and Faber , 1967.
Ogunyemi, Chikwenye. “Iconoclasts Both: Wole Soyinka and LeRoi
Jones”: In African Literature Today. (1981 ): 25 – 38
4
UNIT 20
The Practical Criticism of Drama
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Table of Content
1.0
2.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
The Peculiarity of Drama
Recognising the Identity of a Play
The Setting or Background of a Play
Determining the Central Argument
Dramatic Techniques and Devices
Your Personal Judgment
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor Marked Assignment
Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
Having gone through the units exploring drama as literature in this course, it
is natural that we ask whether you feel that you have been adequately
prepared to engage a play. If you can acquire the skills needed for this you
cannot claim to have benefited in a real sense. For this reason, we shall take
time to consider the approach to the criticism of poetry; you can only know
the basic principles now. You should at least be prepared to engage drama
texts that you have not been taught.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of the unit, you should be able to
· Identity the skills needed for the practical criticism of drama.
· recognise the place of major elements of drama in dramatic criticism and
how to proritise them.
3.1 The Peculiarity of Drama
Drama is a unique and peculiar literary form. In fact, some critics strongly
believe that it should not be read as literature because a dramatic work almost
always attains its full realisation when performed. The implication of this is
that, it will be improper to judge a dramatic work only as a literary text. This
fact has to be borne in mind, especially because most plays are first presented
on stage before they are even published and made available to a larger
audience.
3.2 Recognising the Identity of the Play
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One other fact or that is important in writing about a play is the fact that the
tradition within which a play operates must be identified. It is not in every
case that this will be immediately apparent. By the identity of the play, we
mean the dramatic tradition that has informed its creation. For instance, it is
most likely that a play from ancient Greece will obey some rules that operate
within the Classical Greek tradition. Once we are able to locate the tradition
within which the play operates, it will not be difficult to engage it. The
following factors may help in determining these:
The Writer of the Work
If you know the tradition within which a playwright operates, e.g comedy,
theatre of the absurd, tragicomedy etc, it may not be difficult to determine
this. But it is possible for any dramatist to spring a surprise.
The Recommendation of another Publisher
There are times a play declares it own identity. It is either pronounced a
satire, an absurdist drama or an allegory. The burden of the critic is to
discover whether this is true by exploring the play. Even when this
declaration is confirmed in the text, the extent to which the work succeeds
has to be determined.
Internal Evidence
Most of the time, you will need to read a play to come to a judgment as to the
kind of play it is. A satire can easily be identified by the issues and the
techniques it employs. Humour seems to be an important feature of African
satirical plays. However, you should be able to recognise that no playwright
is bound to uphold any tradition. It is possible to deliberately depart from
every known tradition. To have a fixed opinion about drama is to
misunderstand it.
Exercise 1
Identify three features or devices of
(ii) The morality play
(ii) Classical tragedy
3.3 The Setting or Background of a Play
Having established the type of drama a play is, the next important task is for
you to investigate the importance of the setting of a work or its background t
it. It is easy to come to a wrong conclusion about a play like Dutchman if
you do not know that almost everything that is said in the play can only be
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understood in the context of certain racial and social stereotypes that
operates in the American society with regards to the Black community.
Osundare’s The State Visit can also be properly understood in the context of
the leadership problem in Africa. The issues that are raised in the play can be
read in the light of this awareness. A limited understanding of the play and
its significance will make us conclude that it specifically refers to a country
but it is apparent that the play’s relevance transcends the experience of any
country. It focuses on a common African problem even if the immediate
cultural environment of the playwright may be a temptation to limit its
referential value.
3.4 Determining the Central Argument(s)
A theme, as we earlier discussed, is the argument in a work. In a dramatic
work, it is not possible to make a statement on this without adequate
information about all the other factors we have talked about. In addition to
this, it is important to read the entire play, at least twice, to be able to come to
a decision on this.
As with a poem, it is possible to also have more than one theme in a play.
You can observe this in our discussion of Osundare’s play. You can also ask
yourself if the theme or themes of a play are timeless and universal in
relevance. Certain works appeal to people of all ages in all places because
they explore common human problems.
3.4 Dramatic Techniques and Devices
An important factor you must bear in mind while exploring techniques or
devices. The dramatist employs techniques of services that enhance or
advance the concern of the play. In most cases, the techniques collaborate
with the theme. The didactic quality of every play is, for example consistent
with its theme and also suitable for the philosophy of the morality play.
You should recognise the fact that the prominence of a method or technique
is what makes you identify it as operating in a play. It is not every dramatic
technique or device that you should expect in a play. There is a need for
interaction with a play to come to a conclusion as to the techniques or devices
that are employed in it.
Let us take a closer look at what you can look for in relation to some
elements of technique:
(a) Plot/Structure
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Try to find out if there is a special structure that a particular dramatic
form is expected to have. For instance, the plot of a play that belongs
to the absurd tradition is conventionally cyclical due to the absence of
action in it. The plot of a classical tragedy is linear and is supposed to
culminate in the tragedy of fall of the protagonist. If there is a
subversion of an established pattern, it is your duty to account for it.
The plot of a comedy may not be linear. In some plays the plot may
not even be important.
(b) Characterisation
Find out if the character can be grouped into categories based on race,
gender and social class, ideological persuasion etc. Then try to
establish out if they have symbolic values. You can also find out the
attributes of each character with certain plays. For instance,
characters seem to occur frequently in didactic plays as we have in
Everyman.
(c) Language
Here, you are expected to draw attention to the peculiar features of the
language employed in a play. How the features enhance the purpose
of the play should also be of interest to you.
3.6 Your Personal Judgment
The essence of a critical appraisal is for the critic, that is, the person
undertaking the appraisal, to be able to also pass a judgment on the work. Let
this always feature in your assessment of a play. It often comes either as the
conclusion or, when necessary, at the beginning. When it starts your
appraisal, it will then be your duty to justify your assessment in the rest of the
work. Most of the time, your opinion may be related to
· An appraisal of the work in relation to others to which it is related
· An effort to confirm or contradict earlier statements about the play
· An attempt to draw attention to an aspect of then play that has been
neglected by others.
4.0 Conclusion
You can only develop your ability to comment on plays through being
exposed to them. The practical criticism of literary texts in general calls for
broadmindedness.
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The wider your exposure the better for you as a critic. The fact is that you
will most of the time need to draw on your familiarity with other texts to give
an informed appraisal in most cases.
5.0 Summary
Your understanding of literature comes under evaluation when you also have
to comment on them. You must therefore cultivate the habit of assessing
literary works. This is one way you test your own ability.
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
Write short notes on the following as they relates to the practical criticism of
drama.
(a) Dramatic techniques and devices
(b) Personal judgment
(c) The peculiarity of drama.
7.0 Further Reading
Oyegoke, Lekan “Applied Criticism: The Critical Analysis of Poetry”
Drama and Prose”. In Undergraduate Text in English Language .L.
Oyegoke. Ibadan: 1991.161 – 183.
Kennedy, X. J. “Evaluating a Play” In Literature: An Introduction to Fiction,
Poetry, and Drama. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1983.
1212 – 14
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